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Issued December 1, 1909.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUKEAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 41.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE SOUTH AFRICAN PIPE CALABASH.

BY

LIBRARV

NEW YORK.

ootanicai

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer,

AND

G. N. COLLINS, Assistant Botanist.

WASHINGTON : GOVCRNUENT PRJNTING OFFICE : 1909

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau,, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, Albert F. Woods.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, J AHEs E. Jones.
[Cir. 41]

2

B. P. T.-Ml.

THE SOUTH AFRICAN PIPE CALABASH,

INTBODUCTION.

The increasing popularity of calabash pipes made from the fruits
of a South African calabash, or gourd, has aroused a widespread
interest in the growing of this vine. Applications for seed at the
Department of Agriculture are increasing in number, and requests
for information regarding cultural methods and the making of the
pipes have become so numerous that a short publication on the
subject seems desirable, as well as a word of caution to those who
hope to make the commercial production of these gourds a profitable
occupation.

Calabash pipes made from imported South African gourds have
been the fashion in England for some time and are now coming into
vogue in America. These pipes are formed from the crooked necks
of a large gourd {Lagenaria vulgaris) belonging to the well-known
group of plants which includes the cucumber, the melons, and the
squashes. (PI. I, fig. 1.) Pipes made from the imported gourds are
expensive, American dealers usually' charging $8 and even $12 apiece
for them. They are the lightest pipes made for their size, are grace-
ful in shape, color like meerschaums, and are delightful smokers.
Unlike the cheap pipes which are turned out by machinery, no two
of these calabash pipes are alike. In this lies much of their charm.
In this, likewise, lies their cost, for, unlike the great mass of pipes
turned out by machinery, the crook of the calabash varies so that
each mouthi)iece must be made to fit it and each lining of meer-
schaum or plaster of Paris must be specially adapted. In our land of
labor-saving machinery and expensive hand labor this is what makes
the pipes costly. Then, too, until quite recently these calabash
gourds which form the bowls of the pipes have only been grown in
South Africa, from whence they have been imported into this coun-
tr5^ The supply has been so limited that they have been treated as
novelties, and have been offered to the public at almost prohibitive
prices.

[Cir. 41] 3

4 THE SOUTH AFRICAN PIPE CALABASH.

The price now charged by dealers for the pipes is, however, no indi-
cation of what American manufacturers would pay for the gourd necks
out of which thej^ are made. Importers at present secure these necks
at prices ranging from 25 cents to $2 a dozen. When it is realized
that only. well-formed gourds, free from blemishes, are marketable at
any price, it becomes apparent that the growing of these gourds on a
commercial scale does not promise any large profit. It is not, there-
fore, with the idea of presenting to the farmers of the country a new
and lucrative industry that the successful cultivation of the South
African pipe gourd in this country is briefly described in these pages,
but rather to call attention to an attractive vine which anyone can
grow in his dooryard and from the gourds of which a light and attract-
ive pipe can be made, even by those unaccustomed to the use of tools.

THE CALABASH PIPE GOURD IN SOUTH AFRICA.

The American consul-general in C'ape Town, Mr. H. L. Washington,
sent a few seeds of this interesting plant to the Department of Agri-
culture in December, 1906, and with them a short account of the
origin and growth of this peculiar pipe industry. According to Mr.
Washington the use of the calabash as a pipe bowl was discovered by
the Boers and after the Boer war the fashion of using these pipes
was introduced into England, whence it has reached this country.
Knowing that so long as seeds were not sent out of the country
they might hope to hold the cultme as a monopoty, it is reported
that the Boers tried to prevent the exportation of seed; but, as has
been the history of all such things, sooner or later a few seeds were
exported and to-day there are in America enough seeds to produce
all the gourds that it would be possible to market in this country.

When the small cpiantit}'^ of seeds of this gourd, secured for the
Department, were first sent out, it was not thought that the vine
would produce fruit over a wide range of territory, but it has been
found that from New England to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to
the Pacific it yields the characteristic fruits from which the pipes are
made. The vines are very luxuriant growers. In the vicinity of
Washington, D. C, four of the broad-leaved runners early in the
season covered a 6-foot trellis 25 feet long and climbed to a height of
20 feet over some half-grown cedars near by, where they produced
dozens of the long, slender-necked fruits.

CULTURE OF THE VINE.

The vine forms a very satisfactory cover for unsightly brush heaps
or fences, though its rather rank odor might prove objectionable if
used for an arbor too near the dwelling.

To grow the vine for the sake of its gourds is where the chief
interest lies, however, and to do this well it should not be trained on

[Cir. 41]

Cir. 41 , Bureau of Plant Industry, U, S, Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

Fig. 1.— Calabash Pipe Gourds.

Tilt' gounl at ihe left lias tlie natural curve; tlie two at the ri^lit were artificially

one-sixth natural size.)

liapeJ. (About

Fig. 2.— Young Pipe Gourd at the Stage to Begin the Shaping Process, Just
After the Flower Has Withered

(,( iiif-tliini natural size.)

THE SOUTH AFRICAN PIPE CALABASH. 5

a trellis, but allowed to trail over the (ground. The reason for this
was discovered the past summer, with plants growing on a 6-foot
wire fence. The young fruits were repeatedly tied up in the effort
to make their necks crook properly, but as they grew older and
heavier they slipped their nooses of cheese cloth or twine and before
the season closed had straightened out into long, clublike specimens,
worthless for pipe making. If the fruits are allowed to lie on the
ground tiiej^ form their crooked necks quite naturally without assist-
ance, and while not all of them by any means make suitable necks
for pipes a good proportion do. It seems to induce a more perfect
neck to stand the gourds up wdien half grown so that they rest on
their big ends. Unless care is exercised in doing this the necks snap
off, for they are extremely brittle even when fully grown. It is only
when almost mature that they become hard and then they are indeed
almost unbreakable.

Much could doubtless be done to perfect the methods of culture,
insuring perhaps a greater percentage of properly crooked necks and
more perfect surfaces. It could not be seen that inheritance plays
any material part in this matter of percentage of crooks. If left to
themselves the majority will crook their necks, but some few will
remain quite straight, and this on the same vine with perfectly
formed crooks.

The plants will thrive in any rich garden soil, the richer the better.
Beds of well-rotted manure and mellow loam should be made, as for
cucumbers or melons and at the same season, and the seeds planted
much as though thej^ w^ere melon seeds, about an inch deep. It will
not pay in the latitude of Washington, D. C, to plant first in a hot-
bed or cold frame and then transplant, but farther north this may
lengthen the fruiting season somewhat, provided the transiplanting
is very carefulty done. The growth of the 3^oung plants when once
checked will be slow, and seeds planted outside will produce plants
that will overtake them in their growth.

The calabash gourd vine is a good bearer. Four vigorous vines
grown in Maryland in 1908 pn duced about 75 gourds. But it must
not be thought that all of the gourds will be fit for })ipe bowls, unless
each fruit is found while the neck is still pliable and so tied that it
forms the proper curve. Among the large leaves the finding of the
very young gourds requires much searching and at frequent intervals.

1 he gourds should be left as long as possible on the vines to thor-
oughly thicken their shells. If picked green the shell will be no
thicker tlian stiff cardboard and in drying it is very liable to crack.
Frost will injure the gourds if they are left on the vines too long.

DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES.

It will be an unpleasant surprise when the crop has been harvested
1(1 how few of t

9927-Cir. 41—09-

to find how few of the gourd necks which in the field seemed eligible

b THE SOUTH AFKICAN PIPE CALABASH.

for pipes are really perfect enough to use. The small defects and
insect bites which scarcely seemed to mar the gourds in the field
appear as malformations which throw out as culls a large share of the
crop.

From the appearance of the South African imported product it
seems probable that a dry climate is best for the production of the
gourds and that water is best applied by irrigation. In the moist
regions of Maryland, although perfectly satisfacto'ry pipe gourds can
be grown, there seems to be danger of the necks becoming infected
with a pink mold (doubtless a Fusarium) that often quite ruins them.
Especially liable to this are the specimens lying on the ground, and
this was one of our reasons for standing the gourds on end or for
placing a board under the choicest specimens. Any mechanical or
insect injury to the neck or upper third of the young gourd ma}^ scar
it so as to make it unfit for a first-class pipe.

There is a snout beetle in our gardens which persisted in biting the
necks of the gourds shortly after the flowers had set, and in every
case these bites resulted in scars which were permanent. To keep
the insects from biting the gourds, some were covered with cheese
cloth and others with large paper bags with the mouths folded
closely about the stem. The paper bags proved better, especially if
placed so that the water could drain out of them. In some instances
after a rain many of the bags were found full of water and the gourds
covered with molds.

THE ARTIFICIAL SHAPING OF THE GOURDS.

It was discovered that with a little care and patience it was possible
to cause these gourd necks to grow into any desired shape. To do
this, it is necessary to provide half-inch boards 6 by 8 inches in size,
riddled with quarter-inch holes as close together as they can be bored.
Each board has its accompaniment of 5 or 6 pegs, which should be
about 3 inches long, whittled to fit the holes, and padded with cloth
so that they will not scratch the tender gourd. One of these boards
is required for each pipe until its neck is set at the right curve; then-
it can be removed and used for another. The young gourd when still
quite young and before its delicate neck has hardened (PI. I, fig. 2)
is laid on the board and gently bent in the desired direction and
pegged in place. By the following day the tension will be relaxed
and the fruit can be still further forced into shape. Three or four
resettings of the pegs are usually enough to carry the gourd to the
point where the neck is fixed in form.

Pipes formed in this manner become invested with still greater
individualit}". Unlimited opportunity is afforded for the exercise of
ingenuity in the making of new forms, and individual tastes regarding
the shape of a pipe can be fully gratified. (See PI. II, fig. 2.) By this

[Cir. 41]

Cir. 41 , Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Fig. 1. —Materials for Making a Calabash Pipe: Gourd Ready for the Fitting
OF THE Bowl, Box of Plaster of Paris, Meerschaum Bowl, Machinist's Die,
Curved Rubber Stem, and Nipple.

.\n atlilitional nipple is slmwii witli tlie .stem.

^v/v

Fig. 2.— Various Forms of Calabash Pipes.
The upper und lower pipes on the right hand side liave been artillcially shaped.

THE SOUTH AFRICAN PIPE CALABASH. 7

method gourds wore formed with a double curve in the neck, making
unnecessary a curved mouthpiece. If the vines run over the ground,
the boards used serve the additional purpose of keeping the gourds off
the soil.

METHODS OF MAKING THE PIPES.

To make a pipe the neck end of the gourd should be cut off and all
pith carefully removed from the inside. The thin outside cuticle
should be scraped off witli a sharp knife before it dries; at least it
comes off easier then and if left on will form food for molds. Whiting
or pumice may be used for polishing the hard surface, if not smooth
enough after thoroughly scraping. Sandpaper will scratch it and
should not be used.

The drying of the gourds seems a simple thing, but it is in reality
so difTicult that it should be specially explained. After the pipe
gourds are harvested, the necks, particularly if not properly cleaned
and scraped, are in great danger from molds. If stored in a warm,
close room for only a few days the cuticle will be covered with un-
sightly spots, which ruin the hard layer beneath by discoloring it.
The necks, after being cleaned and scraped, will cure best if hung up
in a cool, dry room where plenty of air is circulating and where they
will not freeze. If a place where the sun can strike them can be
found, so much the better.

The making of the pipe should be postponed until the gourds have
become well seasoned. The necessary accessories are a rubber mouth-
piece, a bowl, and some thin cork strips, the cost of which should not
exceed 50 cents. (PI. II, fig. 1.) In addition to these a few cents'
worth of plaster of Paris Avill be needed. Cut off smoothly the tip of
the small end and bore through it with a knife blade into the narrow
cavity of the neck. Into this screw firmly a crooked rubber mouth-
piece with its ivory -threaded nipple. If there is difficulty in getting
the hard ivory to cut its own thread, even after soaking the tip of the
gourd neck in hot water, a number If or || machinist's die, according
to the thread of the nipple, should be used to cut the thread. The
large trumpctlike end of the gourd neck is next cut with a fine saw at
the pro[)er angle and low enough so that a regular cheap meerschaum
bowl will fit into it, having its rim flush with the outside of the gourd.
A few teaspoonfuls of plaster of Paris rnixed with water to form a
stiff paste is spread as a thick layer for half an inch inside the rim of
the gourd neck. The meerschaum bowl is first greased and then
forced into place against the fresh plaster and left just long enough to
allow the plaster to set slightly, not over three minutes at most; other-
wise it will stick fast.

The setting for the bowl is now made, but not perfected until a strip
of thin cork, such as many cigarettes are tipped with, has been glued

[Cir. 41]

8 THE SOUTH AFRICAN PIPE CALABASH.

smoothly over the surface of the plaster. Before doing this a little
of the plaster of Paris should be scrajied out to allow for the thickness
of cork. If too much is removed and the bowl is loose the difficulty
can be corrected by cutting down the edge of the gourd. This can
best be done with a fiat file or by holding the end of the gourd against
the side of a grindstone. When properly done the meerschaum bowl
fits snugly, but is easily removed by a twist of the fingers when the
pipe is to be cleaned.

This is the completed pipe, and with all the necessary things at
hand it can be made in half an hour. (PI. II, fig. 2.)

Many smokers prefer a push stem and the calabash lends its?lf
readily to this style of pipe. Recourse must again be had to the
tobacconist for the mouthpiece, and this time instead of the bone
nipple a ferrule of suitable size must be secured. The operation is
exactly the same as for the fitting of the screw stem up to the time
that the hole is made in the small end with a pocket knife. For a
push stem this should be continued until the hole is slightly larger
than the stem to be used. If the ferrule is of the proper size it is
then only necessary to force it into place over the end of the gourd and
the pipe is complete.

When a push stem is used the bowl can be made entirely of plaster
of Paris and the cost of the pipe still further reduced. A thin piece
of cardboard with a central perforation is fitted into the gourd just
below the point where the bottom of the bowl is to come. A thin
mixture of plaster of Paris is then poured into the gourd to form a
layer about a quarter of an inch thick on the pasteboard disk. Any
smooth cylindrical object, such as a homeopathic vial with a diameter
suitable for the inside of a bowl, is well greased and placed upright
in the end of the gourd to form a core. The space around the core is
then filled Math plaster of Paris, and as soon as it has begun to set
the core is removed. A small perforation in the bottom of the bowl
about the size of a large knitting needle is made as soon as the plaster
of Paris has completely set and the pipe is complete.

This style of bowl is permissible in a push -stem pipe, since the
pipe can be readily cleaned from the stem end, thus obviating the
necessity of a removable bowl.

A well-made calabash pipe will appeal to the discriminating pipe
smoker as possessing the much valued characteristics of the long
German pipe in a much more convenient form. The bowd occupies
but a small part of the hollow neck and the remainder of the space
forms a receptacle below the bowl that answers the same purpose
as the lower bowl of the German pipe in keeping juices from entering
the stem and allowing the smoke to cool.

ICir. 41]

THE SOUTH AFRICAN PIPE CALABASH. 9

CONCLUSIONS.

The calabasli pipes now imported in considerable quantities from
Eng;land and Germany are made from the fruit of the Soutii African
pipe gourd, a variety of Lagenaria vulgaris. Seeds of this variety
have been introduced from South Africa, and the plant has been found
to thrive in all parts of the United States. The vine grows luxu-
riantly and is of considerable value as an ornamental.

Light and attractive pipes can be made from the fruits of this
gourd by anyone at a nominal cost. These homemade pipes possess
great individuality and are in no way inferior in smoldng qualities to
the expensive imported pipes which are now so much in fashion.

The gourds are produced in great abundance, but the prices paid
for the necks by manufacturers are very low and the demand is
limited. The raising of the gourds on a large scale in the expectation
of a commercial demand is, therefore, not advisable.

Approved:

James Wilsox,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, Septemher 11, 1909.

ICir. 41]

o

[Cir. 42]
2

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beveuly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, Albert F. Woods.
Editor, J. E. Hoc k well.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

B. 1*. 1.-517.

ORIGIN OF THE HINDI COTTON.

INTRODUCTION.

Hindi is the name applied in Egypt to an undesirable type of cot-
ton with a short, weak fiber, that injures the high-grade Egyptian
varieties b}^ infesting them with hybrids. The skill and cheapness
of the native Egyptian labor enable the exporters to have the cotton
sorted by hand in their baling establishments, so that a high rejjuta-
tion for uniformity has been secured in spite of the Hindi admixture.

The introduction of the Egyptian cotton into the United States
brings also the problem of the Hindi cotton, but without the resource
of cheap labor which enables the difficulty to be surmounted in Egypt.
The practicability of establishing a commercial culture of the Egyp-
tian cotton in the United States depends largely upon the elimination
of the Hindi contamination and other forms of diversity, so that the
fiber may be produced in a satisfactory condition of uniformity. The
Hindi cotton problem might be compared to that of the red rice that
mixes with the white and depreciates the value of the crop. In the
case of the cotton there is a better prospect that adequate knowledge
of the vegetative characters may enable the undesirable plants to be
removed from the fields without too seriously increasing the cost of
production.

DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS OF THE HINDI COTTON.

The Hindi cotton usually appears more vigorous and robust than
the adjacent Egyptian plants by reason of the larger number of vege-
tative branches developed from the lower nodes of the central stalk.
The vegetative branches also take a more nearly upright position,
rendering the plants more compact and bushy in their general shape,
as well as more densely leafy. The leaves are much thinner in tex-
ture than those of the Egyptian cotton and of a lighter and more yel-
lowish green. The difference is particularly striking in Arizona,
where the Egyptian cotton usually is of a very dark grajdsh or bluish
green. The lateral lobes appear very short and broad in comparison
with the Egyptian cotton, or even with many of our Upland varie-

[Cir. 42] 3

OKIGIN OF THE HINDI COTTON.

ties. The lateral angles of the leaf are produced so little that the
outer margin is left nearly straight if the middle lobe is cut oif. (See
fig. 1 and compare with fig. 2.) The pulvinus at the base of the
leaf blade is red, as well as the adjacent part of the petiole, and es-
pecially the somewhat swollen upper side of the end of the petiole,
which may be looked upon as a part of the pulvinus. The involucral
bracts are nearly orbicular, very deeply cordate at base and mar-
gined with numerous long teeth. The calyx has long-pointed trian-

FiG. 1. — Leaf of Jannovitch Egyptian cotton (natural size).

gular lobes. The petals are creamy white and the petal spot faint
or entirely lacking. The small conic bolls have three, four, or
five carpels or locks, and are of a pale-green color, with few and
deeply buried oil glands. The lint is white and of very inferior
quality. The seeds are longer and more angular than in the Egyp-
tian cotton, and the surface is usually completely naked after the
lint is removed. In rare cases there may be fuzz at the ends of the
seeds, as in the Egyptian cotton, or even a larger amount.

[Cir. 42]

ORIGIN OF THE HINDI COTTON. 5

SUPPOSED RELATION OF HINDI COTTON TO UNITED STATES

UPLAND VARIETIES.

The nature and origin of the Hindi cotton appear to have been the
subject of as much popular spccuhition in Egypt as the red rice in
the United States. The word " Hindi '' is the Arabic equivalent of
our word " Indian." Some writers have taken this to mean that the
cotton came from Hindustan, while others consider that the name

Fig.

-Loaf of Hindi cotton (natui-al size).

Hindi might be applied to any foreign plant and has no particular
significance as an indication of origin. A third opinion is that this
cotton is either a native Egj'ptian variety or one that was cultivated
in the countr}' before the present commercial type. The reason given
for this idea is that this cotton is frequentl}' found in a wild or spon-
taneous condition in uncultivated or abandoned lands.

[Cir. 42]

6 OKIGIN OF THE HINDI COTTON.

The suggestions of scientific students of the Hindi cotton are
hardly more consistent. Sir George Watt's monograph of cotton
connects the Hindi plant with no less than three species supposed to
be native in different parts of the world, but he refers it most directly
to Gossyplum punctatimi, and states that this species grows wild in
the United States. Some of our cultivated Upland cottons, such as
the King variety, are reckoned as varieties or hybrids of Gossypium
punctatum^ and the Moqui cotton of the Arizona Indians is definitely
referred to this species."

In reality there is no wild cotton in any of the cotton-growing re-
gions of the United States. In Texas and other Gulf States warm
winters often allow the roots to survive and send up new shoots in
the spring, but in cold years all the cotton is killed throughout the
cotton belt. The only indigenous wild type of cotton known in the
United States is that found in the extreme southern part of Florida
and on the Florida Keys, unless we take into account the varieties
cultivated by the Indians of Arizona, and these varieties have never
been planted in other parts of the United States except in very re-
cent experiments.

Watt dwells in particular upon the claim that the Hindi cotton re-
sembles Moqui cotton from Arizona ; but when the living plants are
compared, the resemblance between the Moqui and Flindi cottons ap-
pears no greater than that between the Hindi and our Upland va-
rieties. The Hindi cotton finds a much closer alliance with other
types of cotton from southern Mexico and Central America. These
types belong to the general Upland series, but they have not been
known in the United States until very recently and have been planted
thus far only in a few localities and only on an experimental basis.

HINDI COTTON RELATED TO MEXICAN VARIETIES.

The vegetative characters of the Hindi cotton show the closest
approximation to those of some of the Mexican varieties from the
State of Chiapas and in particular to a type obtained by Mr. G. N.
Collins in 1906 at the town of Acala. There are the same light, yel-
lowish green, broad, short-lobed, smooth, naked leaves and the same
strongly zigzag fruiting branches which frequently branch again
from the axillary buds. As in the Hindi cotton, the bolls are pale
green, the oil glands that show as black dots on the bolls of Egyptian
cotton being buried deeply in the green tissues. The involucral bracts
are rounded and very deeply cordate at base, as in the Hindi cotton,
and the margins have longer and coarser teeth, carried down nearer

«Watt, St. George. The Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the World,
London, 1907, p. 181.
[Cir. 42]

ORIGIN OF THE HINDI COTTON. 7

to the base than in our Uphmd cottons. The calyx of the Hindi cot-
ton has hirge triangular lobes, and these are often produced into a
long, slender tip, as in many Mexican and Central American varieties,
including that from Acala.

Many of the plants of the Acala cotton growing at San Antonio
in August, 1909, were remarkably close counterparts of some of the
Hindi plants of the Jannovitch row in the same field. The chief
difference lies in the greater fertility of the Mexican cottons, some
of which appear worthy of cultivation in the United States, since
they have larger bolls and better lint than our United States Upland
varieties. The Hindi cotton is markedly infertile or fruits very late,
but this fact may be connected with its status as a reversion. Muta-
tive variations, like hybrids, are often more or less completely sterile.

The Egyptian and the Upland types both have definitely specialized
fruiting branches, but the fruiting branches of the Hindi cotton
show a much greater tendency to keep an ascending position and con-
tinue their vegetative growth, the young floAver buds being often
aborted. The same tendency is often seen in aberrant plants of
Egyptian cotton, including many that show Hindi characteristics.
The fruiting branches of the Hindi hybrids are usually few and short
and some of the Hindi-like plants are completely sterile, as already
stated. This is in notable contrast wath the behavior of the hybrids
between the Egj^ptian and Upland qotton, Avhich have the fruiting
branches better developed than in the pure Egyptian stocks.

COTTON INDIGENOUS IN AMERICA.

The resemblance between the Mexican and the Hindi cotton from
Eg3'pt may not appear to be a sufficient proof of the American origin
of the Hindi cotton. It might be thought more likely that cotton
had been carried from Egypt to Mexico than from Mexico to Egypt.
Account must be taken of the further fact that Mexican and Central
American varieties are members of a large natural group. The
numerous local types are appreciably different and yet they have so
many characters in common that the whole group must be looked
upon as an indigenous product instead of a recent importation. The
long, narrowly attenuate lobes that render the Hindi calyx so widely
different from the Egyptian is a feature commonly accentuated in
many of the Mexican and Central American types, though very
rarely found in our United States Upland varieties.

How the Hindi cotton was introduced into Egypt is likely to remain
a matter of conjecture, for the history of the Egyptian cotton itself
is altogether obscure. That it came to Egypt from India is not to be
considered impossible, for in India, as in Egypt, large numbers of

[Cir. 42]

8 ORIGIN OF THE HINDI COTTON.

varieties have been imported at different times for experimental pur-
poses. Some American cottons appear to have been cultivated in
India for a long time, perhaps dating back to early Portuguese intro-
ductions from Brazil. All that can be said at present is that none
of the cottons from India that have been grown in the United States
show any close approximation to the Hindi cotton.

The idea of the Hindi cotton as a wild plant in Egypt may have
been strengthened, if not suggested in the first place, by the fact that
Egyptian cotton stunted by dry soil or other unfavorable conditions
shows a stronger resembhmce to the Hindi. The first leaves of the
Egyptian cotton have nearly the same shape and color as the adult
leaves of the Hindi, and stunted plants continue to produce the juvenile
form of leaves. The proportions of adult Hindi plants also appear
to be influenced by the external conditions in different plantings of the
same stock of seeds. It does not seem unreasonable to suppose that
Egyptian cotton escaped from cultivation might go over more and
more to the Hindi type. A further reason for considering the Hindi
cotton as a collateral relative of the Egyptian, if not a truly ancestral
form, may be found in the fact that many hybrids between the
Egyptian cotton and United States Upland varieties show Hindi
characteristics rather than those of the parental types.

The fact that the affinities of the Hindi cotton have been so long
misjudged would tend to show that Indian and Egyptian students of
cotton have not been familiar with the Mexican and Central Ameri-
can types. It is possible that the Hindi contamination already
existed in the Egyptian cotton when it was introduced into Egypt
and that its existence in that country resulted from reversion rather
than from local contamination. The Sea Island cotton of the United
States, that has never been in Egypt, also shows sudden variations,
the so-called " male stalks " or " bull cotton," commonly reckoned as
hybrids, but having a general similarity to the Hindi reversions of
the Egyptian cotton and the same tendency to sterility and inferior
fiber."

EELATIONSHIPS OF EGYPTIAN COTTON".

There are also many indigenous varieties of the general Sea Island
type of cotton in the American Tropics, and often in the same locali-
ties with indigenous Upland varieties, so that opportunities for
crosses may have existed through long periods of time. Some of the
Mexican and Central American varieties of the Upland series share
the long-pointed bolls and some of the other characters of the Sea

« Orton, W. A. Sea Island Cotton : Its Culture, Improvement, and Diseases.
Farmers' Bulletin 302, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1907, p. 29.
[Cir. 42]

ORIGIN OF THE HINDI COTTON. y

Island series, and it is not impossible that a complete series of inter-
mediate types may yet be discovered in tropical America.

Watt's recent assignment of the Egyptian cotton to another botan-
ical species {Gossypium peruvianum) instead of to the Sea Island spe-
cies {G. barhadense) should not be allowed to confuse the issue, for the
two types do not appear to have any essential differences to justify
such a separation. The range of diversity shown by the Eg}'ptian
cottons during the period of acclimatization leaves no doubt that they
are closely allied to the Sea Island cotton. There are individual
Egyptian plants, with lighter color and narrower lobes than usual,
that simulate the Sea Island cotton very closely, without any serious
departure from the usual Egyptian characteristics. The most pro-
nounced differences that sometimes appear to separate the two types
are the darker green color of the Egyptian foliage and the smaller
tendency of the Egyptian cotton to produce fertile branches on the
lower part of the plant. Both these characters are known to be easily
influenced b}^ external conditions and individual selection, as in the
Upland types of cotton.

A planting of Sea Island cotton at Falfurrias, Tex., in the season
of 1909 showed several plants strikingly similar to Egyptian cotton,
much taller and less fertile than their neighbors, and with the coarser,
darker foliage and the relatively short buff lint of the Egyptian — ap-
parently complete reversions from the Sea Island to the Egyptian
type. Indeed, the approximation w^as in this instance so close as to
call for repetitions of the experiment to exclude every possibility
of admixture of seed. The same stock of Sea Island seed handled
in the same way at New Braunfels, Tex., produced none of the Egyp-
tian-like plants, but many similar cases have occurred where diversi-
ties have appeared in some places and not in others. Darker lint
accompanies darker foliage among the Egyptian plants as well as
among the Sea Island. The two series undoubtedly overlap, whether
they are capable of showing the same extremes or not.

The question of the botanical name that should be applied to the
Hindi cotton may well be left open until more definite knowledge is
available regarding the botanical identity of other Mexican types.
The Hindi cotton may prove to be close to the original of Todaro's
Gossypium mexicamim, but may also be distinct, if Watt is correct
in referring our big-boll Upland varieties to that species. Todaro's
Gossypium mic7'ocarpum is another Mexican species to be considered
in the identification of the Hindi cotton, for some of the Mexican
relatives of the Hindi cotton show narrow-leaved forms that may
have furnished the originals of Todaro's species, though they have
no apparent relation to some of the varied types that Watt assembles
under this name.

[Cir. 42]

30 ORIGIN OF THE HINDI COTTON.

POSSIBILITIES OF UPLAND ADMIXTURE IN EGYPT.

That some of the so-called " Hindi contamination " in Egjq^t may
be due to hybridization with true United States Upland cottons is
not to be denied, for it is probable that many experimental plantings
of Upland cotton have been made in Egypt, affording opportunities
for crossing to take place. Recent reports indicate that some of the
Egyptian planters are adopting the Upland cotton as a regular crop,
owing to a serious decline in the yield of the Egyptian cotton in the
last few years. Indications of a previous contamination with Upland
cotton appear in the Ashmuni variety of Egyptian cotton as grown
at Yuma in 1909 from newly imported seed. The Ashmuni field
showed numerous Hindi plants different from those that appeared in
other varieties in being distinctly hairy. In addition to the hairy
Hindi plants there were several small hairy individuals that lacked
other distinctive Hindi characters, such as the light-colored, short-
lobed leaves, and approached in these respects some of the forms of
Upland cotton. The hairy Hindi plants might also be taken to indi-
cate Upland hybridization, in view of the strong tendency of the
Hindi characters to come to expression in Egyptian-Upland hybrids.
These hybrid reversions sometimes take on the complete Hindi form
and show very few or none of the Egyptian or Upland characters.

CONCLUSIONS.

Experiments with Egyptian cotton in Arizona show that the so-
called " Hindi " variations which appear among plants grown from
seed imported from Egypt are one of the principal factors of the
diversity that would diminish the commercial value of the fiber.

Comparisons with other types indicate that the Hindi cotton is
of American origin instead of a result of hybridization with a
native Egyptian or other Old World species of cotton as various
writers have assumed.

On the other hand, the Hindi cotton does not prove to be identical
with any of our United States Upland varieties, as supposed by
Watt. It finds a much closer alliance with other types of Upland
cotton indigenous in Mexico and Central America.

As the Egyptian and other Sea Island types also appear to have
originated in tropical America, it becomes possible to view the Hindi
variants as examples of reversion to remote ancestral characters
rather than as results of recent hybridization. The similarity of the
Hindi foliage to that of young plants of Egyptian cotton accords
with this interpretation.

[Cir. 42]

ORIGIN OF THE HINDI COTTON. 11

Although reversion to Hindi characters frequently occurs when
the Egyptian cotton is hybridized with United States Upland vari-
eties, there are also many Upland characters that seldom or never
appear among the Hindi reversions and thus enable recent contami-
nation with Upland cotton to be detected.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, October 19, 1909.

Note. — After this circular was written, the Library of the Department of
Agriculture acquired a set of the files of the Cairo Scientific Journal, a recently
established publication not hitherto accessible in Washington. Two papers
touching upon the origin of the Hindi cotton and containing many interesting
historical facts appeared in this journal in 1908, both by scientific investigators
resident in Egypt. The first paper, written by Mr. W. Lawrence Balls for the
July number, inclines to the current idea that the Hindi cotton is a native of
Egypt and adjacent regions, though adducing no direct evidence. The second
paper, in the November number, is by Mr. F. Fletcher, who had previously
lived in India and investigated the Indian cottons.

The Hindi cotton is said not to be grown in India at the present day, but
Fletcher states that " it is cultivated near Bagdad under this same title and
is supposed to have been introduced there from India, as its name suggests."
No consideration is given to the idea of the Hindi cotton as a native of Egypt,
Watt's view of its relations to Gossniiium punctaium and American Upland
cottons being apparently accepted. The possibility of a Central African origin
of the Hindi cotton is noted, on the basis of a Hindi-like herbarium specimen
dating from 1SG3 labeled as representing a cotton introduced into Egypt from
Cordofan. Fletcher adds that he has " received many samples of seed from
Central Africa, but none of these have given rise to Hindi plants."

Still older specimens from Upper Egypt and Abyssinia, described by early
authors under the name frutescens and considered by Balls as possibly per-
taining to Hindi, are shown by Fletcher to be true Old World types, not related
to the Hindi cotton or to the Egyptian. Balls also refers to Gossypiiim viti-
folium as a Central African cotton with " free, naked seeds." Fletcher does
not look upon G. vltifoliiun as related to the Hindi cotton, but accepts it as one
of the ancestors of the Egyptian, the Sea Island as the other. Balls finds that
a variety of Sea Island cotton has been cultivated at Ramla, in the Menufiyeh
district, for thirty years, which may explain the tendency of the Egyptian
cotton to vary in the direction of the Sea Island.

Fletcher also studied at Paris Lamarck's original type of vitifolium, sup-
posed to come from Celebes, though the locality is doubtful. He concludes
that an Egyptian specimen referred to Lamarck's species by Delile over a
century ago was correctly identified, and gives photographs of the original
specimens, which are not altogether favorable to his conclusions. It can be
seen that the involucral bracts of Lamarck's plant were of distinctly un-
Egyptian form, the teeth being coarse and long and extending far down toward
the base of the bracts, as in the Hindi cotton. Fletcher also considers that the
Delile plant agrees with a specimen of " Jumel " cotton sent from Egypt to
[Cir. 42]

I

12 OKIGIN OF THE HINDI COTTON.

Todaro about 1866 with a statement that it had been introduced from Ceylon

about forty years before. i

Historical accounts collected by Balls indicate that the field culture of long- \

staple cotton in Egypt was begun by Mohammed Ali in 1821 at the instance of
Jumel, a French engineer. The superior type adopted by Jurael was not a new
introduction, but a perennial " tree " cotton that was being planted as an orna-
mental in gardens at Cairo, and supposed to come from India. Several direct
introductions of Sea Island aud Brazilian cotton appear to have been made
subsequently, but without displacing the variety that had been popularized by
Jumel. Balls is inclined to ascribe the brownish color of the Egyptian cotton
to these Brazilian introductions, but Fletcher believes that Jumel's cotton was
brown, like some of the Brazilian cottons.

If the Egyptian cotton came by way of India the name Hindi that is now
given to inferior plants may be only an echo of the original introduction of the
Egyptian cotton itself. Any cotton brought from India might be called Hindi at
first, and this name would serve in later years for the residual stock, after
local varieties with special names began to be distinguished. Balls shows that
there were numerous varieties of Egyptian cotton with distinctive names before
the Mit Afifi type was introduced in 1882. After the use of the improved types
became general the old name might still be applied to inferior variations or
even to accidental hybrids. The origin of the name appears to have no bearing
in this case upon the origin of the plant. Local varieties of cotton might have
been taken to India from any part of tropical America, though more likely to
have come from Brazil, where the Portuguese ships were accustomed to stop
on their way around the Cape of Good Hope.
[Cir. 42]

o

Issued December -1, 1909.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 43.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE DETERIORATION OF CORN

IN STORAGE.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
*^ QARDEN.

J. W. T. Dl^^EL,

Assistant in Charge of Laboratory Methods,
Grain Standardization.

14015 09 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENV PRINTING OFFICE : IOCS

BUREAU OF PLANT IXDI STRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Buteai/ , AiMT.m F. AVoods.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

[Cir. 4.'!]
2 ■

<

B. P. I.— 521.

THE DETERIORATION OF CORN IN STORAGE.

INTRODUCTION.

In February, 1909, special investigations were begun at Baltimore,
Mel., in cooperation with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company,
for the purpose of obtaining defmite information regarding the dete-
rioration of shelled corn in elevator l)ins and in grain cars. The first
series of experiments in these mvestigations comprised tests with (1)
5,550 bushels of corn stored in a 65-foot elevator bin for 69 days,
until the corn at the top of the bin had become badly damaged;
(2) 900 bushels of dried damaged corn from the top of the bin loaded
into car No. 67031 and held on the track for an additional 37 days,
and (3) 900 bushels of the best cool corn from the same bin loaded
into car No. 75197 and held on the track with the car contaming the
dried damaged corn.

In this preliminary report no attempt has been made to generalize
the results of the experiments, to draw^ any definite conclusions, or
even to give any extended expression of opinion. The aim has been
to outline the conditions under which this first series of experiments
was made and to give a brief summary of the results obtained, leaving
the individual reader to formulate his owti theories until the mvesti-
gations are more advanced. It is hoped, ho^^ever, that this prelim-
inary report will provoke discussion and bring about a better under-
standing of the purpose and value of investigations of this character.

CORN STORED IN ELEVATOR BIN.

On February 17 and 18, 1909, 5,550 bushels of shelled corn were
stored in a 65-foot bin '' in elevator C of the Baltimore and Ohio Rail-
road Company at Baltimore (Locust Point), Md. This corn was left
without "running" until April 27, 1909, at which time the fermen-
tation at the top of the bin had progressed so that the corn was hot
and sour, the temperature 8 inches below the surface having reached
133° F.

a This opportunity is taken to acknowledge the cordial cooperation of the Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad Company and the Baltimore Chamber of Commerce, through its
grain-inspection department. Special thanks are due to the various men assigned
for duty at the elevator, who willingly rendered every possible assistance while these
experiments were in progress.— B. T. Gallow.a.y, Chief of Bureau.

b The bin in which the corn was stored is near the center of the outer row of bins
on the east side of the elevator, the outer 6-inch wooden wall of the bin being built
against the heavy brick construction of the elevator.

[Cir. 4:^] ^

4 THE DETERIOEATION OF COEN IN STOEAGE.

The corn used in these experiments was taken from cars selected
from those received at Bahimore, Md., on February 16, 1909. So
far as the records available show, 4,050 bushels of this corn were
grown in the Dakotas, the remaining 1,500 bushels having originated
in Ilhnois. The 3,050 bushels first run into the bin consisted of
practically all Dakota corn. The next draft of 500 bushels was
Ilhnois corn with, a small admixture of Dakota corn. The 1,000
bushels following consisted of Illinois corn, while the 1,000 bushels
in the tenth and eleventh drafts at the top of the bin were composed
of corn from the Dakotas.

In fining the bin each draft consisted of 500 bushels, with the
exception of the first 50 bushels at the bottom of the bin. After
almost every draft, samples were taken with a 4-foot grain trier,
one from the center and one from near each corner of the bin, and
the difterent factors representing the quahty and condition of the
corn were determined for each sample. The average results of the
analyses of the samples representing the difi"erent drafts are given
in Table I. These results show the moisture content; weight per
bushel; w^eight of 1,000 kernels; sound corn; damaged corn; other
grains; dirt, cobs, etc. ; badly broken corn; and germination of whole
kernels. A comparison of Table I with figure 1 will show^ the exact
location of the corn in the bin represented by each set of averages
given in the table.

Table 1— Average condition and quality of the 5,550 bushels of corn at the beginning
of the experiment, as shown by the analyses of samples taken with a 4-foot grain trier
after the different drafts were emptied into the bin a

No. of draft.

Amount
of draft.

Moisture
content.

Weight

per
bushel.

Weight
of 1,000
kernels.

Sound D|-
corn o-sy^
'-"'"■ grams.

other
grains.

Weeds,
cobs,
dirt,
etc.

Badly

broken

com.

Germina-
tion of
whole

kernels.

Bus.
50
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
1 000
500
500

r.ct.

17.8
17.9
17.8
17.9
18.0
17.8
18.8
17.5
17.0
IS. (J
18.3

Lhs.
53.5
53.8
53.6
53.3
52. G
53.6
53.0
.54.5
55.0
53.3
52.8

Gramit.
280
294
337
295
303
296
286
317
330
272
276

P. ct.
97.9
97.6
97.4
96.9
96.2
96.6
97.7
97.6
96.9
96.3
96.6

P.ct.
0.8
1.0
.5
1.4
2.5
2.2
1.8
1.3
.7
1.4
1.6

P.ct.
0.5
.9
1.2
.9
.4
.4
.1
.•5

.......

.9

P.ct.

0.8

.5

.9

P.ct.
2.4
3.1
3.3

P.ct.

(Bottom)

1

2

81. 3

3

.8 :2. u

. 9 1 3. 5

i2. 8
73.0

4

5 .. ..

.8
.4
.0
2.4
1.2
.9

i.6
1.4
3.5
5.4
3.9
3.7

11.3
69.0

87.8
95.0
71.. S
73.0

6

7 - - -

8 and 9

10

11

Average

17.8

53.7

301

97.0

1.4

0.6

1.0

3. 80. 6

1

a \11 figures in the table other than those in the Trst two roUimns represent averages, so that the final
average of all the com in the bin is based on a total of 43 samples, or 1 sample for appro-ximately ever>
130 bushels of corn emptied into the bin.

As will be seen from the table, the average moisture content of
the corn in the difi'erent drafts varied from 17 per cent in the eighth
and ninth to 18.8 per cent in the sixth draft, with an average of
17.8 per cent for all of the corn in the bin. The w^eight per bushel

[Cir. 43]

THE DETERIORATION OF CORN IN STORAGE. 5

varied from 52.6 pounds in the fourth draft to 55 pounds in the
eighth and ninth, with a total average of 53.7 ])ounds. Similar
variations are shown in the other factors, most of which indicate
that the corn of the highest quality and in the best condition was
the Illinois corn contained In the eighth and ninth drafts.

NOTES ON THE TEMPERATURE AND THE CONDITION OF THE CORN

WHILE IN THE BIN.

The bin used in this experiment was previously equipped with
thirteen electrical resistance thermometers, so that temperature
records of the corn in various parts of the bin could be taken at any.
time during the course of the experiment. Thermometer No. 1 was
about 3^ feet from the bottom, near the center of the hopper. The
other thermometers were distributed through the center of the corn,
approximately 8^ feet apart, except that in the corn near the top
of the bin, wdiere deterioration is most hkely to begin, additional
thermometers w^ere placed at various points. Figure 1 shows the
location of these thermometers, numbered from 1 to 7 and from A
to E, inclusive. In this same diagram are also showTi the number
of bushels contained in each draft, the average moisture content
and the weight per bushel of the corn in the various parts of the bin
at the time of filhng, the temperature of the corn immediately after
the bin was filled, and the maximum temperature of the corn at the
end of the experiment, wliich extended over a period of 69 days.

The temperature of the corn immediately after the bin was filled
varied from 36° to 40° F, As the bin was being filled the atmosphere
was clear and dry, the relative humidity being 48 per cent. The
temperature of the air in the elevator varied from 36° to 39^° F.
"While the corn was in storage, temperature readings were made every
two or three days until April 22, when the corn at the top of the bin
gave evidence of very rapid deterioration, necessitating frequent
readings during the remaining five days of the test.

The first indication that the corn had begun to deteriorate was on
the 26th of March, after it had been in storage 37 days, at which time
a slightly sour odor was perceptible in the corn at the top of the bin,
showing that fermentation had begun. The highest temperature
recorded at this time was 42° F., by thermometer C, approximately
5 feet below the surface of the corn. From this time on the increase
in the temperature of the 500 bushels of corn at the top of the bin
became more pronounced. However, 27 days later, on April 22, the
highest temperature recorded was still less than 70° F., but during
the 5 (Uiys immodiatoly following a maximum of 133° F. w^as reached,
S inches below the surface of the grain. r

[Cir. 43]

THE DETERIORATION OF CORN IN STORAGE.

W/RE CABLE

CORNER Z

i8.3%M0/STU/?£. 52.8 L6s. per Bu.
T£-MPE/?Ara/^E 38° to /33°/r

/8.6% MO/STURE. 53.3 Lbs. per Bu.
TEMPER/ITURE SS^'to //5°E

/7.0 % MO/ STORE. 55. Lbs. per Bu.
TEMFER/iTURE 38° tO 56.5° E

l7.5°/o^0/STURE. 54:5 Lbs. per Bu.
TEMPERATURE 40° to 40.5° E

/8. 8 % MOfSTURE. 53. Lbs. per Bu.
TEMPER/JTURE 36. 5° to 41. 5°E

17.8 JoMO/STURE. 53 6 Lbs per Bu.
TEMPERATURE 36 ° to 40. 5°E

/8. % MO/STURE. 52. 6 Lbs. perBu.
TEMPERATURE 36° to 39.5° E

l7.9°/o MO/STURE. 53.3 Lbs per Bu
TEMPERATURE 36° to ^0.5°E

/78%M0/STURE. 53.6Lbs.per Bu.
TEMPERATURE 38° to ^/.5°E

/7.9 % MO/STURE. 53. 8 Lbs per Bu.
TEMPERATURE 36° to 4/.5°E

/7.8°/o MO/STURE. 53.5 Lbs per Bu.
TEMPERATURE 36° to ^/.S°E

Fig. 1. — Diagram showing the position of the thermometers: the number of bushels, the moisture content,
and the weight per bushel for each draft; and the temperature of the corn at the beginning and at the
end of the experiment.
[Cir. 43]

THE DETERIORATION OF CORN IN STORAGE, 7

On March 31 tlu'ce holes were bored tlirough the wall of the bin on
the side nearest the interior of the house. One hole was bored
approximately 10 feet from the bottom, another 25 feet from the
bottom, and the third 40 feet from the bottom of the bin, or 20 feet
from the top of the grain. Samples taken through these holes with
a 4-foot grain trier showed that the corn had not changed materially
since it was first placed in the bin, no unnatural odors being percep-
tible. On the same date samples taken with a long grain trier from
7 feet below the surface showed the corn at that point to be slightly
musty.

Samples taken on April 3 from 3, 7, and 12 feet below the surface
showed more pronounced odors in the corn at 3 and 7 feet, but no
odor could be detected in the samples taken at 12 feet. At this time
the maximum temperature of the corn 12 feet below the surface was
42° F. The highest temperature in the upper 500 bushels was 45^°
F. On A})ril 6 the corn near the top of the bin was very musty,
although the maximum temperature was only 48° F. On April 13,
samples were again taken from 12 feet below the surface but revealed
no odors indicating deterioration.

On April 19 the maximum temperature in the 500 bushels of corn
at the top of the bin was 6H° F., as registered by thermometer E, 8
inches below the surface. The corn near the top at this time was
very musty and a considerable quantity of fresh mold was growing on
the kernels. The temperature of the corn 12 feet below the surface,
as registered by thermometer A, was 56° F., wliich was within one-
half degree of the highest temperature recorded at that depth during
the entire test.

On April 26, samples were again taken through the holes in the
side of the bin at 10, 25, and 40 feet from the bottom, together with a
number of samples representing the 1,000 bushels at the top of the bin.
At this time the corn at the top of the bin was hot, musty, and sour,
but no odor could be detected on the samples taken through the hole
10 feet from the bottom of the bin. However, the samples taken
through the holes 25 and 40 feet from the bottom of the bin showed
that the corn near the bin walls at those points was slightly sour.
This condition was shown more clearly when the bin was emptied
the following day, the corn having a tendency to adhere to the sides.
In emptying the bin the corn from the sides became unevenly mixed
with the better corn from the interior, so that an odor was percep-
tible on a considerable portion of the entire bulk.

The fermentation in the upper 500 bushels of corn was very active
at tliis time and the temperature was increasing rapidly. -On April
25 thermometer Xo. 7, in the center about 5 feet beneath the surface
of the corn, registered 87° F. At 8 o'clock the following morning

[Cir. 43]

s

THE DETEEIORATION OF COEN IN STORAGE.

this same thermometer registered 102°; at 11.45 a. m., 105°; at 3.10
p. m., 107°, and at 9 o'clock the morning of the 27th, 115°, an increase
of 28 degrees F. in 48 hours. The highest temperature registered on
April 27 was 133° F., in corner No. 4, 8 inches below the surface of
the corn. In corner No. 1, 14 inches below the surface, the tem-
perature was 110°; in corner No. 2, 112°; in corner No. 3, 125°; and
in corner No. 4, 132^°. Thermometer B, in corner No. 2, the same
depth below the surface as thermometer No. 7, registered 71.5° F.

1909. FE^BRUARY

M/IRCH.

/iPRIL.

1909

UMMMMMMmiMM

Erra

\=/i>^//V 0/f SA/OUV, .(i\ MCH OR MORE. ^^^''^Mk = R/IIN OR SNOW, TR/iCE.

I I = NO RAIN OR SNOW.

Tig. 2. — Diagram showing the temperature of the corn in various parts of the bin, the daily maximum and
minimum air temperature, and the precipitation from February 17 to April 27, 1909.

A clearer understanding of these contlitions will be had by consult-
ing figure 2, which shows the temperature of the corn in various parts
of the bin, together with the daily maximum and minimum air tem-
perature, and the general character of the precipitation during the
69 days covered by the experiment.

CONDITION OF THE CORN AT THE END OF THE EXPERIMENT.

As shown in figure 2, the only marked increase in temperature was
in the 6 or 7 feet of corn at the top of the bin. The maximum tem-
perature registered by thermometers No. 6 and A, approximately 12

£Cir. 43]

THE DETERIORATION OF CORN IN STORAGE. 9

feet below the surface, was 51° and 56^° F., respectively. The tem-
perature of the corn in the lower part of the bin varied from 39^° to
41^° F., as compared with a variation of from 36° to 40° F. at the
beginning of the experiment.

The moisture content of the corn immediately at the surface was
14.95 per cent, or 3.35 per cent less than on February 17. The
moisture content of the 1,000 bushels at the top of the bin, exclusive
of the corn on the surface, was slightly higher than when the corn was
placed in the bin, showing that the deterioration of the corn was
resulting in the formation of more water than was being given off by
evaporation. The weight per bushel of the surface corn was 54 pounds,
while the weight of the remainder of the upper 1,000 bushels had
decreased from 53 to 51 pounds.

The germination of the poorest corn from the top of the bin varied
from to 17 per cent, with an average of 10.3 per cent, as compared
with an average of 72.4 per cent on February 17. This corn was
damaged so that many of the germs were badly discolored. The
average germination of the 1,070 bushels taken from the top of the
bin for further experiment, which included not only the hot corn
but all that had a temperature over 50° F., was 42.6 per cent after
being handled, dried, and loaded into car No. 67031.

The corn in the lower 45 feet of the bin, except 900 bushels of the
best quality which was loaded into car No. 75197 for further test,
after being handled over three elevators and dried to 14.87 per cent
of moisture, was given a grade of "Mixed corn." The germination
of this corn was 80.8 per cent at the beginning of the experiment, 71.4
per cent when drawn from the bin, and 81.4 per cent after being
handled and dried.

The total loss in weight, as shown by the certificates furnished by
the weighman of the Chamber of Commerce, resulting from filling and
emptying the bin and the evaporation during the 69 days in storage,
amounted to 310 pounds, or slightly less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.

DRIED DAMAGED CORN FROM TOP OF BIN STORED IN CAR.

The 1,070 bushels of corn drawn from the top of the bin was
weighed, handled over three elevators, and reweighed, after which
it was artificially dried in a grain drier at a temperature varying from
151° to 163° F. The average moisture content of this corn as taken
from the bin was 18.64 per cent. The average moisture content
when emptied into the drier was 18.30 per cent, or a reduction of
0.34 of 1 per cent as a result of the handling, which is equivalent to
a loss in weight of 0.4 of 1 per cent." In drying, the moisture con-

a Circular 32, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, entitled "Mois-
ture Content and Shrinkage in Grain," explains why this difference exists and how it
is calculated.

[Tir. 4.-!]

10 THE DETERIORATION OF CORN IN STORAGE.

tent was reduced from 18.3 per cent to 14.57 per cent, a reduction of
3.73 per cent, which is equivalent to a loss in weight of 4.44 percent.

After this corn was dried and thoroughly cooled, 900 bushels, having
an average moisture content of 14.57 per cent, were loaded into car
No. 67031 as if intended for shipment. The car was run out into the
yard and left standing on the track fully exposed to all atmospheric
changes. The temperature of this corn immediately after it was
loaded into the car, after drying and cooling, on April 27, varied from
57 ° to 58 ° F. Frequent temperature readings were made up to and
including May 25, when the highest temperature at any ])oint in the
corn was 66° F., an increase of only 8 or 9 degrees, although the
temperature of the air in the car had varied from 56° to 82° F.
and the temperature of the air outside of the car from 41° to 90° F.
On May 25, after being in the car 28 days without any noticeable
change in condition, the corn was unloaded, elevated, and weighed,
and then returned to the car and left an additional 9 days on the
track. The air temperature at this time was 73 ° F. , resulting in a very
slight increase in the temperature of the corn by the time it was
returned to the car.

On June 3 the temperature of the corn was 67° F., an increase of
only 10 degrees during the entire 37 days that this corn was in the
car. The condition of the corn was fully as good if not better than
when it was placed in the car on April 27, although the odor resulting
from the fermentation of the corn while in the bin had not entirely
disappeared.

On June 3 the moisture content of the corn on the surface was 13.1
per cent, with 14.48 per cent for the remainder of the corn in the car,
a difference of 1.38 per cent in the moisture content, which is equiva-
lent to a shrinkage in weight in the surface corn of 1.59 per cent in 9
days from May 25 to June 3.

UNDRIED CORN FROM BIN STORED IN CAR.

In order to secure data for comparison, 900 bushels of the best cool
corn from the bin, principally the Illinois corn from the eighth and
ninth drafts, were loaded into car No. 75197 and placed on the track
alongside of the car containing the 900 bushels of dried damaged corn
from the top of the bin. The temperature of this corn while still in
the bin varied from 40° to 42° F., but in "running" from the bin,
elevating to the scale, and loading into the car, the temperature
was increased so that the temperature of the corn after being loaded
was 48° F. The air temperature at this time was 51 ° F. and the rela-
tive humidity of the atmosphere 76 per cent. The average moisture
content of this car of corn was 17.5 per cent, and the weight per
bushel was 55.3 pounds.

[Cir. 4:^]

THE DETERTORATIOX OF COEX TX STORAGE.

11

On May 20, after standinfj on the track 23 days, the corn in this car
began to show unmistakable si<z;ns of deterioration. At that time the
maximum temperature of the corn was 75° F., and it had a distinctly
sour and musty odor. Five days later the maximum temperature
was 122° F. in the brake end of the car, a])proximately 6 inches below
the surface of the corn. The average weight per bushel had decreased
from 55.3 ])ounds to 52.6 pounds. The moisture content varied from
13. G per cent in the corn at the surface to 17.5 ])er cent where the
temperature was 122° F., as compared with a variation of from 17 per
cent to 17.7 per cent at the time the corn was loaded into the car.

Z8 OA^s

3 Oy^y^

A/T/^V

Ayf^y

/20

■40

/S

2S 2S

JO

U.

\
I

§
I

X

I

)

/

/

J

/

\ A

/

^ \

AJ» 1

"V

vy£-y^rH£r/? /^fco/po

^

'vk^/k-i

P

ffA/A/ . O/ WCH Of? MOf?e Wj^y^^A fMW, T/MCe.

\/VO fR^W.

Fig. 3.— Diagram showing the temperature of the undried com in ear No. 75197 and of the dried damaged
corn in car No. G7031; the dailj- maximum air te:ni)eratiire; and the weather record from April 27 to
June 3, 1909, while these cars were on the track in the Baltimore and Ohio elevator yards.

On May 25 tliis corn was unloaded, weighed, handled over fiA'e eleva-
tors, reweighed, screened, weighed a third time, and returned to the
car for further observation. When the corn was returned to the car
the "second time (May 25) the temperature v\-as 73° F., approximately
the same as the temperature of the air at the time the corn was
handled. On June 3, 9 days later, the corn in this car was again hot,
the maximum temperature being 112° F., showing that hot corn is
not made safe for shipment when cooled sim])ly by handling.

Figure 3 shows the changes in' temperature in both the car of
undried com and the car of dried damaged corn while on the track

[Cir. 43]

12 THE DETERIORATION OF -CORN IN STORAGE.

from April 27 to May 25 and from May 25 to Jime 3, together with the
daily maximum air temperature and the weather record for the same
period. The diagram also shows that only the corn near the surface
was influenced by the temperature of the outside air.

LOSS IN MOISTURE AND SHRINKAGE.

When the undried corn from the bin was first loaded into car No.
75197, on April 27, the average moisture content was 17.47 per cent.
On May 25, when the maximum temperature of the corn was 122° F.,
the average moisture content of the surface corn was 13.55 per cent.
Samples taken from 5 inches below the surface showed a moisture
content of 17 per cent. The highest moisture content found was
17.5 per cent, in samples taken at the point where the temperature
was 122° F.
• The shrinkage in weight in the layer of corn at the surface, based on
the reduction in moisture of 3.92 per cent, was 4.53 per cent. On
May 25 this corn was unloaded and re weighed by the weighman of
the Chamber of Commerce on the scales regularly used at the ele-
vator. The loss in weight in the loading and unloading and through
evaporation while in the car from April 27 to May 25 was 367 pounds,
or 0.728 of 1 per cent. This corn was then handled over five elevators,
screened, weighed, and reloaded. In this handling and reloading
the moisture content was reduced to 16.55 per cent, or 0.92 of 1 per
cent less than when the corn was first loaded into the car on April
27, which is equivalent to a loss in weight of 1.1 per cent due to the
evaporation of moisture while in the car and in the handling of the
hot corn in the elevator. On June 3, this car of corn, cooled by
handhng, was again hot, the temperature having increased from 73° F.
to 112° F. from May 25 to June 3. The average moisture content of
the surface corn was only 13.95 per cent, as compared with 16.55 per
cent when reloaded, a reduction in moisture of 2.6 percent in 9 days.
The low moisture content of the surface corn showed that water
was being lost by evaporation and that this evaporation is quite
rapid when the temperature of the corn is relatively high. It must
be remembered, however, that this car was opened frequently and
the corn on the surface more or less disturbed in the securing of sam-
ples, in reading temperatures, etc., so that the same results might
not apply in the same degree to corn in transit where the cars are
unopened from point of shipment to destinati(m.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, Novemherd, 1909.
IClr. 4:i]

o

Issued January 19, I'JIO.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 44. *-'BRary

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. ^ VORK

BOTANICAL

Garden.

MINOR ARTICLE!"^ OF FARM EOUIPMENT.

BY

L. W. ELLIS,
Assistant, Office of Farm Management.

lSr>55 — 1910 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1910

BlREAl OF PLANT IMH STRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, Albert F. Wooi>.s.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jone.s.
;Cir. 44]

2

B. P. ].— 520.

MINOR ARTICLES OF FARM EOUIPMENT.

INTRODUCTION.

Among the leaks in farming to wliicli because of their apparent
unimportance httle attention has been directed is the waste which
occurs through a general lack of comprehension as to the extent and
value of the minor articles which are necessary to the smooth run-
ning of a farm. This waste is exhibited in extra expense through the
purchase of unnecessary tools and materials; in the loss of time and
discounts in buying numerous articles singly or in small lots; in the
loss, theft, and rapid depreciation of items of equipment considered
too insignificant to require systematic care ; and in the losses in many
directions through tha lack or the misplacement of equipment at
times when it is urgently needed.

A previous publication " has to a greater or less extent emphasized
all the foregoing points in discussing the advantages to be gained by
having on the farm at all times the workshop tools and materials
necessary for keeping in a high state of efficiency the equipment
upon which the successful management of the modern farm so
largely depends. It is the purpose of this paper to lay even greater
emphasis upon certain of these points and to present the results of
a study made for the purpose of determining the number and cost
of all minor articles of equipment necessary for a farm of the general
t3^pe. This study did not include wagons, machinery, or other
articles which on account of their bulk or value would be classed as
items of major importance, but was confined to the consideration of
the miscellaneous small tools, utensils, and sundries usually purchased
singly ()!■ in small lots at a shght cost for each.

The total cost of the miscellaneous articles is usually much higher
than the estimates given by farmers and writers on agricultural

a Farmers' Bulletin 347, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, entitled "The Repair of Farm
Equii)ment." This Ijulletin discusses the importance of making minor repairs on
the farm, the character and use of tools, and the proper \vorksho{) facilities and ma-
terials for repair work. It \vill be sent free of charge upon application to the Secretary
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

[Cir. 44] 3

4 MINOR ARTICLES OF FARM EQUIPMENT.

subjects, but owing to the great number of small purchases made
this fact is seldom realized except by the few who have made careful
inventories at stated intervals. Ignorance of this fact leads farmers
in general to neglect an extremely valuable portion of their equip-
ment, and it would probably be found that the decrease in value of
the small articles is much more rapid than that of the major items,
for which an annual rate of depreciation of 7.3 per cent has been
established." The low estimates regarding tliis part of the equip-
ment also prove disappointing to the manager of a new farming
venture who finds it necessary to make an increased outla}^ on this
account, attended by a readjustment of his plans.

The importance of having a good working ec[uipment in small
articles and the absolute necessity of caring for it are matters which
should be apparent to the thoughtful farmer and need not be dwelt
upon further. The waste of time in making numerous special trips
for small articles is also apparent, particularly when it is considered
that many of these occur in the busiest seasons. This coidd be
avoided to a large extent by taking an inventory during a slack
period and replacing all missing items at the first opportunity.
Concerning the loss through ignorance of the equipment needed,
however, less has been said, and it is in regard to the requirement in
the way of miscellaneous articles and their purchase that this paper
^\^ll be largely devoted.

In selecting the minor equipment for a given farm consideration
must be given not only to the articles needed for the care and repair
of buildings, fences, machinery, etc., but to those used for the care
of live stock, the production of crops, and the various other interests
of the farm. With every change in the type of farm involving a
new combination of enterprises, a change in minor equipment will
be necessary. For each of the many specialized types of farms
certain articles will be needed wdiich will not be found necessary on
farms generally. To attempt to determine the equipment in small
items necessary for all these special types is beyond the scope of this
paper, which will attempt to cover only those items found in most
common use on farms of the general type. By this is meant farms
of moderate size on whicli both crops and live stock are raised with-
out particular emphasis on the production or disposition of any one
product.

The nature of the minor equipment will be determined largely by
the character of the farm enterprises antl the proximity of repair and
shopping facilities, wliile its extent may be governed by the size of
the farm, the number of workmen, and the financial circumstances
of the proprietor. Perhaps both the nature and the extent of the

"Bulletin 73, Bureau of Statistirs, U. S. Dept. of Ajjriculture.
ICir. 44]

MINOR AKTICLES OF TAKM EQUIPMENT. 5

minor equiiHiient Avill be influenced most by the farmer's attitude in
regard to small economies and his abihty to use tools to the best
advantage.

EXTENT OF MINOR EQUIPMENT.

For the purpose of ascertaining how mucii of the miscellaneous
equipment discussed is necessary on general farms, the annual inven-
tories on the farms of thirty-three cooperators in Ohio were made as
complete as possible with respect to minor items. These farms
include one poultry, truck, and general farm, one large horse farm,
and a number on which dairying is the principal enterprise, yet none
depart radically from the general type. The average size is a trifle
less than 167 acres, and the average equipment as nearly as can be
determined is given in tabular form on subsequent pages of this
circular.

SUMMARY OF INVENTORIES .

Table I, showing a summary of the inventories of minor equip-
ment, must be studied closely in order to he of the greatest value.
Not all the items listed are necessary for a satisfactory farm equip-
ment, and on no farm was a complete list found. No farm combined
all the enterprises represented, yet every item in the list was found
on one or more of the cooperating farms. A few articles were
omitted as being of an extremely unusual character. Many items
which might be called farm equipment because found in farm rather
than in town homes are not included, the aim being to present a sug-
gestive list of miscellaneous farm tools, etc., for the convenience of
the farm manager. The use of the various tools is not described, as
only the more common ones, with which local merchants are usually
familiar, have been included.

The table is designed to show the relative importance of the
various items and approximately what is required for a complete
e(iuipmeiit. The first column shows the percentage of the whole
number of farms from which each article was reported in the inven-
tories. It is probable that m many cases there should be a slight
increase in the percentage shown, owing to failure to record all the
articles on some of the farms. It is believed to be correct, however,
in showing the relative importance of the different articles. In col-
umn 2 is shown the average number of each article on the farms
which report the same. In column 3 is the number which the inven-
tories suggest as approximately the average for a well-equipped
general fanu under the conditions obtaining in Ohio. In making up
this number it has been necessary to consider the percentage of farms
rej)orting each article, the average number of articles for each farm

[Cir. •14]

6 MINOR ARTICLES OF FARM EQUIPMENT,

reporting, and the same average for the whole number of farms.
The suggested number is the nearest whole number to the mean
found between the two averages. For example, the T-handled wood
auger is reported from 22 out of 33 farms, or 67 per cent. A total of
67 augers was found on these farms, or 3.04 for each farm reporting,
and 2.03 to the farm for the whole number. The mean is 2.54 and
the suggested number 3. With one or two exceptions no article is
included in column 3, however, which was not reported from at least
20 per cent of the farms and for which the average to the farm for the
whole number of farms was less than three-tenths. In this way con-
sideration was given to the fact that on some farms certain items are
not reported and that on farms which do re})ort the various items
there are undoubtedly cases in which fewer articles than those found
would be adequate. This last statement is certainly true, since in
many cases where several tools of a kind are kept, a part are old and
are retained simply for occasional use. The arbitrary basis given
was adopted because it was found to mark quite accurately the divid-
ing line between what was considered essential and wdiat nonessen-
tial by the owners of several well-equipped farms. Column 3 is not
necessarily a recommendation as to what will be urgently needed for
a farm of average size and type, but it is indicative of the number of
articles suggested by the inventory. By carefully considering the
needs of his farm the manager can cut down the list materially. The
oil cans, wrenches, eveners, etc., purchased with machines were
excluded wherever practicable from the inventories; hence, the sug-
gested number is less in many cases than the real total for such
items.

In column 4, figures are given for the first cost of the various articles,
the price of all being included for reference, even though all of the
articles are not recommended for use. The price for the complete
article (for example, a tool with a handle) is given in most cases.
This price has been obtained \\herever possible from merchants
located in sections from which the inventories were taken. The
majority of hardware items were priced by one of the leading hard-
ware merchants of Wayne County, Ohio. Other prices were ob-
tained from Farmers' Bulletin 347. Still others were supplied by
various farmers who had purchased or matle similar items within a
few months of the date of inventory. These prices will, of course,
vary a great deal with the location of the purchaser and the quality
of the goods. Regarding the latter, however, the point was em-
phasizetl in obtaining prices that average figures were wanted for the
quality of goods usually purchased by farmers. These prices are
merely suggestive and can not ii\ all cases be relied upon, for the
reasons just mentioned.

[Cir. 44]

MINOR AETICLES OF FARM EQUIPMENT. V

The total cost of the various items suggested is extended in column
5. The total, which seems extremely large in comparison with the
usual estimates, is, however, not unreasonable if a rather complete
equipment is desired. Taking the grand total inventory of items
mentioned in this list for all the farms, using the prices given in
colunm 4 and dividing by 33, the first cost for the average farm of
167 acres is found to be about $190. The discrepancy between this
figure and that given for the total cost of items suggested, S270.70.
may be due partly to incomplete inventories but more to the fact
that the latter figures contain a large number of single articles for
which the mean previously mentioned was a fraction greater than
one-half and less than one. Column 5 indicates a rather complete
outfit. Neither the $190 nor the $270.70, however, includes any
allowance for a stock of materials for the repair of equipment, as
given in Farmers' Bulletin 347. An expenditure of $50 or more in
this connection would save many trips to town for materials, even
if the equipment for making use of them were complete. Many
items considered useful and necessary might be added to the list
suggested, but the purpose of this circular is to establish what might
be called a working basis for considering this phase of equipment.
The occasional need for many of these omitted items will be ap-
parent, and attention is called to the fact that the list in column 3
contains only 158 out of 240 articles, all of which were considered
necessary in certain cases. The initial expense if all the items were
included in as large numbers as shown in column 2 would be over
$685, and it is not an uncommon thing to find farms in the United
States on which the actual investment in small and miscellaneous
articles would be above this figure if all the tools had been bought
first hand. The summary of the thirty-three inventories is given as
follows:

Table I.—Summai-y of items of minor equipment reported on thirty-three farms in Ohio,
with the number and cost of all items suggested us necessary and their total cost.

Items.

r.enenil purpose:

AuKor

Awl

Ax and handle

Pinch bar

Bench screw . .

Auger bit

Bit brace

Steel square. . .
Bevel square..

Try-square

Wood chisel . . .

[Cir. 44]

1

.>

S

Average

Number of

Percentage

number of

each item

of farms

items per

suggested

reporting.

farm report-

as neces-

ing.

sary.

67

3.0

27

1.9

88

2.1

64

1.1

55

1.0

94

6.7

94

1.2

85

1.1

35

1.0

25

1.0

73

4.3

Cost of
each item.

$0.25
.10
1.25
.75
.GO
.30
1.50
■.75
.40
.•25
.40

Total cost
of items

suggested
as neces-
sary.

$0. 75

.10

2. .50

.75

.60

2.00

1.50

.75

.40

.25

8

MINOR AETICLES OF FARM EQUIPMENT.

Table I. — Summary of items of minor equipment reported on thirty-three farms in Ohio,
with the number and cost of all items suggested as necessary and their total cost — Cont' d.

12 8

4

5

Items.

Percentage

of farms

reporting.

Average
number of
items per
arm report-
ing.

Number of
each item
suggested
as neces-
sary.

Cost of
each item.

Total cost
of items

suggested
as neces-
sary.

General purpose— Continued.

ComDass

42

64

91

45

55

21

82

36

70

67

82

36

79

42

94

85.

73

79

39

.39

21

42

27

10

30

21

15

3
23
27
18
73
24
27

6
70
35
42
30
61
24
64
30
91
39
33
67
52
33
18
36
16
41
11
29
22
31
44

6
16
31
31
13
16
34
28
38
24
26

3
45

" 1 lalloE

1.0
1.2
1.3
1.4
3.0
1.1
1.3
1.0
1.4
1.7
2.5
1.5
1.4
1.0
1.7
1.2
2.3
2.5
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.4
1.0
1.0
1.2
1.0
1.2
1.0
1.0
3.9
1.0
2.3
1.8
1.0
2.0
2.0
1.5
2.2
1.7
a. 8
1.3
2.1
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.1
1.4
1.5
2.2

i!o

1.0
1.0
1.5
1.3
1.1
1.0
1.0
1.4
1.0
1.4
1.9
1.4
1.3
1.0
1.1
" 1.1
1.0
1.0
2.1
5.0
1.4

is.

1
1

•1
1
2

$0.30

.75

.75

.40

.20

.50

.50

.50

.75

.25

1.50

.25

.75

.30

1.25

3.00

1.25

.30

.50

.50

1.25

1.25

.10

.75

.60

10.00

5.50

16.00

4.00

.50

1.25

.20

.10

10.00

.50

.15

.30

.10

.10

.30

1.50

.50

3.00

4.00

.75

1.00

.50

1.00

.15

..50

. on

.00
1.25
1.00
1.00
1.25
1.00

.40
LOO

.50
1.00
1.00
l.^
5.00

.50
2.00
8.00

.50

.15
2.00
1.75

$0.30

.75

Drawing knife '

Scratch gauge

Gimlet bits

.75
,40
.40

Grub hoe

1

1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
1

i'

1

.50

.50

Hatchet

.75

.25

Log chain

3.00

Wooden mallet

.25

Mattock . .

.75

Compass saw

.30

Handsaw

2.50

Crosscut saw, large

3.00

Plane .

2.50

Iron wedge

Tapeline

Rasp

.60
.60
.50

Cant liook

L25

Chalk line

.10

Carpenter's pincers

1

.60

Anvil

Vise

Forge

Combination drill press

Drills

1

4

4.00
2.00

Cold chisel

2
1
1

.40

Whetstone

.10

Screw plate

10.00

Tones

Flat file .

2
1
2

1

al

1

2

1
1
1

1
1
1

2

.30

Round file

.30

Taper file 1

.20

Oil can .

.10

Machine oil

.30

Pipe wrench

1.50

Monkey wrench

LOO

Tool grinder. . .

3.00

Grindstone

Riveting hammer

Sledge hammer

Pliers

Nippers

4.00
.75

LOO
.50

LOO

Punch

.30

Hack saw

Saw-set

1

.W)

Maul

Post-hole digger

1

i"

1
1

1

1.25

Wire stretcher

1.00

Ditch cleaner

1.25

Tile spade.

1.00

Brick trowel

.40

Plastering trowel

Sand sieve

Pick

1
1

i'

1
1
1
1

1.00

D-han<lled shovel

LOO

Lone-handled shovel

Counter scale

Spring balance

.50

Steelyards

2.00

Platform scale

8.00

Rat trap

.50

.15

Stepladder

i

1.75

[Cir. 44]

MINOR ARTICLES OF FARM EQUIPMENT.

9

Table l.-Summan, of items of minor equipment reported on thirty-three fanm^^
withthenumberandcosto/allitemssuggestcdasnecessan/and their total cost— {.out d.

Items.

Percentage

of farms

reporting.

General purpose— Continued.

Ladder

Farm bell

Lantern

Hoisting block

Barrel

Padlock

Paint brush

Whitewash brush

Basket

Household and farm:

Lard press and sausage stuner.

Sausage grinder

Hog scraper

Hog hook

Butcher knife

Kettle

Tree pruner

Pruning shears

Crates

Garden rake

Hoe

Cultivator

Trowel

Cold frame

Flat

Spade

Sprinkler

Lawn mower

Lawn rake

All stock:

Broom

Clipping machine

Manure fork

Pail ,

Tie chain

* Tie rope

Hand sprayer

Wheelbarrow - - .

Horse and driving:

I?it

Blanket

Brush

Currycomb

Collar

Harness oil

Fly nets

Halters

Muzzle

Nosebag

Sweat pad

Harness punch

Riveting machine

Rivets

Tie rope

Saddle

Riding bridle

Snaps.

Sponge

Neck straps

Syringe

Storm apron

Buggy jack

Wagon jack

Clevis

Chamois skin

Dust robe

Lap robe

Evener. 2-horse

E vener. :i or 4 horse

Storm front

Dash lantern

Average
number of

items per
farm report-
ing-

52
58
68
16
71
39
48
26
52

45
48
10
29
52
55
15
39
39
64
88
12
12
3
3

36
21
64
21

9
15
42
27
18

9
12
42

40
91

43

34

34

97

26

14

37

69

69

43

31

57

23

23

14

43

23

17

40

14

40

11

62

71

60

63

46

23

Number of
each item

suggested
as neces-
sary.

1.4
1.0
1.8
1.2
3.0
1.8
3.3
1.4
5.8

1.0
1.0
2.8
1.1
2.4
1.7
1.2
1.3
54.7
L2
2.4
1.3
1.3
8.0
3.0
1.4
1.1
LO
LO

2.0
1.0
2.6
4.4
5.3
2.3
1.0
1.4

2.4
2.8
2.0
2.3
2.7

1.5
2.8
6.5
1.8
1.4
2.2
1.2
1.0

6 1.2
2.8
1.0
1.3
7.4
2.0
1.9
1.1

1.2
1.1
1.0
4.3
1.0
1.2
1.6
2.0
1.5
1.1
1.4

Cost of
each item.

1

40

1

•2

1

2
3
2

2

2

o2

2

2

Total cost
of items

suggested
as neces-
sary.

$2.00
2.00

.90
2.00

.75

.40

.30

.75

.30

5.50

2.00
.10
.05
.30

2.50

1.50
.40
.40
.50
.40

4.00
.25

2.50
.10
.75
.50

4.00
.40

.30
6.00
.70
.15
.25
.25
.75
4.00

.40

2.00

.50

.25

3.00

.25

1.00

.75

.20

.50

.35

.50

.50

.10

.15

10. 00

1.00

.05

.10

.75

.60

.75

.75

1.00

.10

..50

1.00

5.00

1.50

2.00

4.00

1.00

$2.00
2. 00
1.80

2.25
.40
.(»
.75

1.20

5.50

2.00

.20

.05

.60

2.50

.40

lU. 00

.50

.75
"4.06

1.40
.45
.75

4.00

.80
ti.OO
1.00

.50
G.00

.50
2.00
4.50

.40

.70
..50
..50
.10
.30
10.00
1.00
.20
. 10
.75
.60
. 75
.75

.30

1.00
5.00
3.00
2.00
4.00
1.00

[Cir. 44]

a Quarts.

b Boxes.

10

MINOR ARTICLES OF FARM EQUIPMENT.

Table I. — Summary of items of minor equipment reported on thirty-three fcnns in Ohio,
with the number and cost of all items suggested as necessary and their total cost — Cont'd.

1

2

3

4

5

Items.

Percentage

of farms

reporting.

Average
number of
items per
farm report-
ing.

Number of
eacli item
suggested
as neces-
sary.

Cost of
each item.

Total cost
of items

suggested
as neces-
sary.

Horse and driving — Continued.

Neck yoke

14
29
60
11

6

3

3
39

9
15

36
27

6
70
45
21
21

6
30

6
24

12
48

58.

1.6
3.1
1.4
1.0

1.5
1.0
1.0
3.9
1.0
1.0

4.9
9.9
5.0
3.2
1.1
10.1
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

5.0
1.0

1.1

1

2
1

$1.00
.30
.50
.10

.25
.20
.50
.30
5.00
.25

1.50
. 10
.20
.50

4.00
.20
.50

1.50
.50
.10
.25

.15
1.00

.20
.10
.40
.50
1.00
4.00

.25
.25
.25
.05
.25
.25
.15
3.00

$1 00

Whippletree. . ...

. 60

Whip

.50

Whisk broom

Cattle:

Cow bell

Calf muzzle

Crate.

Tie rope or chain

3

. 90

Dehorning clipper

Milk tube . . . ..

Dairy:

Milk can

4
7

6. 00

Milk crock

. 70

Milk pan

Milk pail. .

3

1
6

1. 50

Churn

4.00

Butter crock

1.20

Butter bowl

Butter scales

Strainer

1

.50

Skimmer

Thermometer

1

3

1

1
ol

.25

Sheep:

Bell ... . ...

.45

Shears

1.00

Swine:

Ring plier

.20

Rings

. 10

Snout clipper

3

3

15

39

6
3
3
3
3
3
6
3
6
6

6

12

9

15

12

12

6

9

6

6

27
70
61

6
42

9

30
12

3

30
58
55

1.6

1.0
2.0
6.6

3.5
3.0
8.0
6.0
1.0
6.0
1.0
3.0
50.5
1.0

iO.O

2.8

1.0

19.6

30.3

1.0

2.0

1.3

13.5

1.0

1.0
2.7
1.3
1.0
1.5
1.3
2.9
cl.3

2.0

1.1
1.1
4.5

Tongs

Crate

Portable house

5

20.00

Poultry:

Fountain

Feed hopper

Trap nests

Feed nan . . .

Feed sieve

Hover box

Effer tester . . .

Coop

Bone cutter . .

6.00

. 75
.75
.75

1.00
.50

1.00
.25
.10

3! 50

.50

.25

1.50

1.00

.50

1.00

.10

.75

8.00

3.00

1.25

.40

Bees:

Section box (100)

Hive

Super . . ...

Smoker

Bee veil

Honey extractor

Corn:

Shock tier

1
2
1

.50

Knife

.50

Hand planter

1.50

Ensilage fork

Seed tester

1

.50

Seed rack

Husking peg

2

.20

Hay:

Carrier

1
1
4

3.00

Hoisting fork

1.25

Pulleys

1.60

" Box.

b Pounds.

c Pairs.

[Cir. 44]

MINOR ARTICLES OF FARM EQUIPMENT.

11

Taulk I —SuDiinuri/ of items of minor equipment reported on thirty-three farms in Ohio,
with the number and cost of all items suggested as necessary and their total cost— Cont'd.

Items.

] lay — Continued.

Hay rope, l-inch..

Trip roi)e, l-ineh..

Hand fork

Baled hay hook...

Sfyllie and snath.

Hand seeder

Sickle

Slings

Knife

Small grain and seed:

Cradle

Binder cover

Flail

Measure

Straw fork

Hand rake

Sacks

Scoop shovel

Sugar beets:

Beet fork

Beet hoe

Beet topper

Potatoes:

Scoop

Fork or hook

Hand planter

Maple sugar:

Sap bucket

Spout

Cover

Scoop

Gathering pail

Tapping bit

Percentage

of farms

reporting.

Average
number of
items per
farm report-
ing.

Total cost of
necessary

ileins suggested as

61
30
88
21
88
70
32
9
67

48
36
15
33
15
36
97
82

3
3
3

3

39

3

21
15

3
12
12

9

a 132. 5
a (S.
3.2
1.6
1.4
1.1
1.1
2.7
1.2

1.0
1.0
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.3
38.6
1.7

2.0
6.0
9.0

1.0

1.4
1.0

471.0

485.0

500.0

1.0

2.5

2.0

Number of
each item
suggested
as neces-
sary.

bllO
b40
3
1
1
1
1

Cost of
each item.

SO. 60

.30

1.25

5.00

.50

2.00

.75

5.00
:3.00

Total cost
of items

suggested
as neces-
sary.

S5.00

.45

1.80

.30

1.25

5. 00

.50

1

38

2

.50
.70
.25
.20
1.00

1.50
.50
.25

1.50
1.50
1.75

.20
.03
.06
1.00
.75
.30

5.00
3.00

.50

.25
7.60
2.00

1.50

270. 70

a Feet.

A careful study of Table I will bring out many points worthy of
consideration. To the owner of a farm who has had no occasion from
time to time to collect his miscellaneous equipment and take account
of its extent, this study should suggest the advisabihty of taking an
annual inventory of the small a"S well as of the large ec[uipment in
order to keep track of his investment. The practice of taking an
inventory, even of the larger pieces of machinery, is not as common
as it should be, and in many cases where an invoice is taken the
"small stuff" is lumped in one item. During the process of taking
the inventories used in compiling this circular the owner almost
invariably expressed astonishment at the extent to which his capital
was invested in miscellaneous minor articles.

The tenant farmers, and especially those who have frequent occa-
sion to move, will ordinarily be found better posted as to the extent
of their miscellaneous equipment, and this will usually be found to be

[Cir. 44]

12 MINOK ARTICLES OF FARM EQUIPMENT.

much nearer the actual necessities than the equipment of the resident
owner. To both of these classes, however, it is earnestly recom-
mended that following an inventory for the purpose of determining
the number and the value of articles on hand there should be pro-
vision made for keeping track of the various articles in a systematic
manner. Only in this way can loss tlu"ough theft and carelessness
be avoided and time saved through a knowledge of where the articles
can be found when wanted, while expenditures for the duplication of
items when the original articles can not be found for the time being
will be rendered unnecessary and depreciation on account of neglect
will be reduced to a minimum. It is unnecessary to dwell upon these
points, as they will be api^arent to the businesslike farmer.

Tliis list also contains possibilities of great value to the prospective
farmer. To the ordinary person the compiling of a complete list of
articles necessary for use on an average-sized general farm becomes
almost an impossibility after he has listed the larger items, such as.
machinery, wagons, etc. This applies to the man with some farm
experience as well as to the one who engages in farming for the first
time. The experience of several men born and raised on a farm and
temporarih" separated from it during a college course will bear out
this statement. One of these was actually in charge of an experi-
mental farm for four years prior to taking up farming on his own
account, yet his initial allowance for small tools and sundries was
only S25. After going over an incomplete list similar to the forego-
ing he purchased a very modest lot of small tools, amounting to over
$100 in value, from a local hardware dealer, thereby obtaining a cash
discount of 10 per cent.

A recent graduate of the Ohio State Universit}', before engaging
in farming on his own account on a portion of his father's farm, kept
in mind for four .or five months the problem of getting a complete
equipment within his means. He first noted all the items which he
considered necessary, basing his list on his previous experience. His
second step consisted of the task of obtaining the net retail prices of
the various articles. The result was a total so large that the third
and most difficult step, that of determining the actual necessities,
was pursued for a considerable time. Having finally reduced his list
to the minimum, he entered into negotiations with several of the local
merchants. Two of these made special efl"orts to obtain his order,
and each made the suggestion that he take a trip at the merchant's
expense to one of the cities in the State and select his equipment
from the large stocks in the wholesale supply houses. He accepted
one of these offers, and during the state fair spent a half da}^ in a large
warehouse selecting articles of the style and cjuality desired. The
goods were shipped to the local dealer, who obtained his profit and

[Clr. 44]

MINOR ARTICLES OF FARM EQUIPMENT.

13

still gave the purchaser a cash discount of 10 per cent from the orcH-
nary prices. The young farmer brought his entire stock of miscella-
neous equipment from the store at one trip with a team and wagon,
and then spent a day or two arranging his workshop and disposing
of his various purchases in the most convenient places, the extent of
his outlay impressing him with the necessity for taking systematic
care of the smallest details. Several items which were not up to the
standard were taken back and exchanged for perfect goods at the
local store, and in this way the entire outfit was delivered at the farm
with very little expenditure of time and annoyance and in perfect con-
dition. By following this method the farmer was enabled to make
his selection from w^ell-known brands and from a larger stock than
that afforded by the ordinary store, besides having a pleasant outing.
His total purchase amounted to about $125, a portion being for
household use.

The following articles were charged against the farm business :

1 leather halter $1. 65

1.50

.85
.10
.05
-GO
.20
.50
.20

1 gallon of paint

1 gallon of barn paint

1 bottle of machine oil

1 small oil can

1 leather punch

2 pairs of gloves

1 pair of shucking gloves . . .

1 shucking peg

1 riveting machine

1 soldering iron

1 crowbar, 16 pounds

1 center punch

1 draw knife

1 garden hoe

1 grindstone ■

1 buggy robe

1 blacksmith's vi.se, 5-inch.
1 tamper.

.50

.30

.64

.10

.60

.35

3.75

8.00

6. 00

1.00

1 pair scales, 600 pounds 11. 00

.50

2.00

2.00

.65

1.75

.20

.20

.20

.25

.30

.30

.40

1.75

1 oilstone

2 gallons of harness oil .

1 jack plane

1 paint brush

1 ratchet brace

1 bit, ^-inch

1 bit, T^-inch

1 bit, T^-inch

1 bit, ^-inch

1 bit, 5 |J-inch

1 bit, {,-;-inch

1 bit, 1-inch

1 hand.'saw

[Cir. 44]

1 handsaw

1 hack saw

1 compass saw

1 pair of pliers

1 pair of pliers '. -

1 i^ost-hole digger

1 screw-driver

2 shovels

1 scoop shovel

1 plastering trowel . . . .

2 wedges

1 fork, 3 prongs

1 whetstone

1 mail box

1 wagon jack

1 bucket

1 set of ladder irons . . .

12 bolts, 14-inch

1 horse blanket

1 whip

1 monkey WTench

1 alligator wrench. ...

1 paint brush

i seed sower

1 saw-set

1 log chain, 15 feet —

1 ax and handle

1 boy's ax

1 cold chisel

1 chisel, J-inch

1 chisel, 1-inch

1 rope, ^-inch, 50 feet.
1 hoisting block

$0.90
.45
.25

1.00
.30

1.25
.35

1.20
.75
.62
.40
.65
.05

1.00

1.00
.65

1.35
.49

3.00
.25
.40
.25
.15

4.50
.60

1.72

1.00
.75
.20
.30
.35
.55

2.50

14

MINOR ARTICLES OF FARM EQUIPMENT.

1 tinner's snips $0. 35

5. 00

.85

.75

.75

2. 25

1. 50
.20
.24

2. 80
.75

1 road scraper

1 steel square

1 nail hammer

1 ball peen hammer

1 jackscrew

1 pipe wrench

1 currycomb

3 clevises

1 crosscut saw and handle.

5 files

1 grub hoe

1 garden hoe

1 horse brush

1 horse brush (for tail). . .

1 hatchet

1 lantern

1 fork, 4 prongs

1 punch

.45
.35
.45
.15
.75
.90
.60
.10

1 pick and handle

2 boxes of copper rivets .

2 boxes of tubular rivets.

1 spade

1 ditching spade

1 snath

1 scythe

1 wheelbarrow

1 hay knife

1 feed basket

1 pair of nippers

1 sledge and handle

3 quarts of paint

Total

Less 10 per cent cash discount .

Net cost

10.60
.20
.10
.60

1.00
.75
.75

1.75
.75
.80
.75
.90

1.15

106. 86
10.69

96.17

A similar course to that just described might well be pursued by-
many persons who are about to engage in general farming. As
before stated, the saving through the merchant's discount is con-
siderable. The merchant who furnished the majority of the prices
contained in Table I stated that for a large bill of goods such as that
under discussion he could afford to give from 10 to 20 per cent
discount for cash on account of the size of the order and the saving
in the cost of selling. This would pay interest on the investment
for some years, to say nothing of the time which would be saved
through having the stock complete at the beginning.

On nearly every farm some articles will be found wliich have been
bought at second hand. No doubt a considerable saving may be
effected by thus securing articles at odd times when work is not press-
ing. If, however, the business of the farm is stopped during attend-
ance at a sale it is an open question whether the saving on minor
items over the suggested method will be sufficient to cover the time
spent. As a rule these articles are summed up in the sale bill as
"too numerous to mention" and no idea is given as to the extent or
condition of the offering.

The lists here given are in the nature of a census in that they present
data from which each individual may secure the information suited
to his own use. These hsts are printed with that object in view
rather than as a recommendation of what should be purchased.
Farmers' Bulletin 347, following a discussion of the various workshop
oools, states that the complete equipment of a shop for the making
of general farm repairs should include a blacksmithing outfit, a
$25 collection of wood-working and general-purpose tools, a pipe-
working combination, miscellaneous tools, a harness-repair outfit,

[Cir. 44]

MINOR ARTICLES OF FARM EQUIPMENT. 15

a workbench, a pair of sawhorses, and a grindstone, and that this
entire c(iiiipment for a shop can be secured for about SI 00 in a fair
quahty of goods, wliile for $150 tools of excellent quality can be
obtained .

The great number of general-purpose items, other than those men-
tioned, together with those for use in connection with the producing
enterprises, and the stock of materials needed for the repair of farm
equipment will easily bring the t-otal cost of a good worldng equip-
ment in miscellaneous articles up to $250. The expenditure of this
sum for this purpose in the organization of the farm is probably
out of the question for many farmers, but due consideration at the
outset for the necessary investment in minor items will save much
inconvenience and disappointment later.

SUMMARY.

Few farmers realize the extent of their investment in small items
of equipment or the time and inconvenience involved in buying
numerous articles singly or in small lots. Before planning the farm
equipment, due consideration should be given to the necessary outlay
for minor items, and w^iere possible the latter should be secured at
one purchase, thereby saving time and, usually, money. The pur-
chase of these articles in such a manner will mean a total expenditure
sufficient to impress the farmer with the need for their systematic
care. The minor items for a general farm of 160 acres in Oliio and
other middle Western States will probably cost from $200 to $300.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, November 30, 1909.

[Cir. 44.]

o

i

Issued February 4, 1910.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 45.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE UTILIZATION OF PEA-CANNERY
REFUSE FOR FORAGE.

iLltSKAKY

NEW YORK
BY BOTANICAL

GARDEN.

M. A. CROSBY,
AssisTAXT Agriculturist, Office of Farm Maxagement.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTrNQ OFFICE : t9T0

19911-10

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, Albert F. Woods.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
C7);f/ C/frfc, James E. Jones. -

[Cir. 45]
2

B. P. I.— 530.

THE UTILIZATION OF PRA-CANNERY
REFUSE FOR F'ORAGE.

INTRODUCTION.

Most of the peas grown for canning purposes are produced in the
States of New York, Wisconsin, Indiana, Ohio, Ilhnois, Michigan,
New Jersey, and Maryland. This branch of the canning industry has
made great growth during the past few years and is being rapidly
extended to new territory, especially in those States where it is already
established.

In the early days of the pea-canning industry it was the practice
to pick the green pods from the vines and shell them by hand, a slow
and laborious process. With the invention of the ''viner," a machine
for thrashing peas out of the green pods, hand shelling has been largely
done away with and the canning industry given a tremendous impetus.
Wlicre these viners are used, the peas can be cut with a mower,
hauled to the cannery, and thraslied while green. This leaves the
canner with a large quantity of refuse vines to be disposed of in some
way.

When the growing of peas for canning purposes first began to be
extensively engaged in, the feeding value of the refuse vines was not
fully appreciated and the canners experienced no little difficulty in
keeping the factories free from this waste. At some factories the
canners rcMiuired the farmers who v/ere growing peas for them to take
away a load of vines for every load of peas hauled to the cannery. At
others the vines were dumped in piles near the factory and later
hauled out for manure. Vvhen these waste vines were allowed to
accumulate in loose piles near the factory a rapid decomposition
would set in, and the stench from this decaying mass of vegetable
matter would be almost unbearable. As a result of this condition
the tefuse vines were often hauled out and dumped in immense piles
at some distance from the factory and later hauled away by tlie farm-
ers and used as a fertilizer. This practice is still in vogue in some sec-
tions where the feeding value of the vines is not yet appreciated.

The dumping of vines in large piles soon led to the discovery that
quite a percentage of the vines thus handled was preserv^ed like silage

tCir. 45] 3

4 UTILIZATION OF PEA-CANNEEY REFUSE FOR FORAGE.

and (rreedily eaten by stock, especially cattle and sheep. The lar<j:;er
the pile of vines and the more they were trampled in piling the
smaller the percentage of spoiled material. From this discovery
developed the practice of stacking the vines in order to save them,
when previously the only question to be solved was how to get rid
of them. Wlien the vines are carefully put up in large, well-trampled
stacks, the decomposition is reduced to a minimum and the unpleasant
odor is much less in evidence, thus making it possible to stack them
quite near the cannery without disagreeable results.

In other sections a short hay crop led the farmers to undertake
curing pea vines for hay, and they soon discovered that the valuable
forage thus secured j>aid them liandsomely for their trouble.

PRESENT METHODS OF UTILIZING THE REFUSE VINES.

Several methods of utilizing refuse pea vines are in use at present.
These are as silage, as hay, as a green feed or soiling crop, and as a
fertilizer. During the season of 1908 a large amount of data on
methods of utilizing this by-product was obtained from canners,
farmers, and feeders throughout the pea-growing sections. The data
obtained show that 96 canneries handled the peas grown on a total of
65,959 acres, and that the refuse vines from 40,518 acres, or 61 per cent
of the total, were used as silage; from 13,785 acres, or 21 percent, as
hay; from 7,731 acres, or 12 per cent, as a green feed or soiling crop,
and that from the remaining 3,925 acres, or 6 i)er cent, the refuse
vines were either used as a fertilizer or thrown away.

PEA-VINE SILAGE.

From the figures just presented it is evident that the most popular
method of using pea vines is as silage, and where the cannery is
located in a dairy section this is almost universally the system in
practice. The same statement is also true for some of the sections
where sheep and cattle feeding are popular industries.

There are two ways of making silage from pea vines, i. e., in large
stacks and in silos. The practice of putting the vines in large stacks
is the one most commonly employed, especially where practically all
the vines from a cannery are handled by the canner or by one or two
other persons. At many factories it has become a custom for the
canners to put the vines up in stacks or silos and either to sell the
silaire to farmeis and feeders in the winter or to buy stock and feed it
out themselves, thus realizing a profit on what was formerly a waste
product. At other factories one or more farmers or stock feeders
will contract to keep the refuse vines cleared away for what they can
get out of them. Still another practice is for the farmer who brings

[Cir. 45]

UTILIZATION OF PEA-OANNERY REFUSE FOR FORAGE. 5

a loiul of peas to the factory to take lioiiie his ([iiota of vines, just as
the (hiiryman takes liis h^ad of whoU^ milk to the creamery and then
takes the separated milk home to feed.

Wliere a hirge quantity of vines is to he put up for winter feed by
one man and care is exercised in having the stacks well built, well
drained, and Ihoroughly jiacked, the stacking method is undoubtedly
the most economical way of handling the vines. With proper care the
vines from 300 acres or more can be stacked with very little loss, and
it is doubt fid whether it would pay to go to the expense of construct-
ing silos where this quantit.y is to be handled. Careless stacking,
though, will invariably result in the loss of a lot of valuable feed.
Smaller quantities than that mentioned can ])robably be most eco-
nomically saved in a silo, and many who have tried both methods
favor the latter under all circumstances.

Fig. 1.— Stacks of pea-vine siUikp, sliowing tlie sloping sides wiiere the vines are carted lo tin- ton of the

stiipk.

At some factories the vines are put into large stacks, one side of
wliich is left sloping (see fig. l),so that a cart loaded with vines may
be drawn up and the horse and cart driven around (m top of the stack,
thus thoroughly compacting the vines. At other factories the vines
are conveyed directly to the stack by means of a carrier (see fig. 2)
and trampled by the men who are doing the stacking. The stacks
should always be well drained underneath, so that the surplus juice
may ooze out and be carried away in ditches. Wlien properly built
and well jnicked only about 8 inches of the outside mass will spoil.

WHiere the vines are kept in the silo they may be put in just as they
come from the viner or the}^ may be run through a silage cutter first.
^\^len they are put in as they come from the vmer they require more

[Cir. 45]

6

UTILIZATION OF PEA-CANNERY REFUSE FOR FORAGE.

tramplino: and packing? than when run throii^jh the cutter. The silo
shouhl always be filled as rapidly as possible, for if the fillin": extends
over a period of several weeks, the leno;th of the pea-canninp; season,
the silafje will spoil and be unfit for feedino;. For this reason it will
hardly be practioaljle for a farmer or dairyman who lives at some dis-
tance from the cannery to put the vines in a silo unless he has plenty
of teams and labor and can get all the vines he needs.

FEEDING VALUE OF THE SILAGE.

The silage made from the refuse pea vines is generally regarded as
possessing a high feeding value for dairy cows and other animals
when a succulent feed is desired. There is some difference of opinion,
however, regarding its value as compared with corn silage. Most
dairymen who have had extensive experience in feeding both are of

YiQ, 2.— stacks of pea-vine silage, showing the carrier used for conveying the vines to -the stack.

the opinion that the pea-vine silage produces a greater flow of milk
than does corn silage. On the other hand, a few contentl that when
a chano-e is made from corn silage to pea-vine silage there is always a
perceptible falling off in the milk production. The latter, however,
are decidedly in the minority. Some cases of this nature were fountl
to be due to the fact that the pea-vine silage was partially spoiled,
and it is possible that all unfavorable results could be traced to
similar conditions.

The following table shows the composition of pea-vine silage from
different sources in comparison witli corn silage.

[Cir. 4.-.!

UTILIZATION' OF PEA-CANNERY REFUSE FOR FORAGE. 7

Tm!I,k I. -Coiiipositi'iu of rorii silnfie (ind pea-vine silage.

Kind of silage.

Corn (immature corn) «.

Corn (mature corn) "

Pea vinH "

Tea vine b

Nitrogen-

Moisture.

Protein.

Fat.

Fiber.

free

extrac-t.

, -,>**.■

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

71.46

2.58

0.97

6.91

16.64

64.43

2. .58

1.25

8.39

22.04

67. 37

3. .59

1.29

8.64

15.35

72. 80

3.65

.86

9.62

10.97

Ash.

Per cent.
1.44
1.31
3.73
2.10

a .Vnnual Report, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, 1904.

b .Vnalysis by Prof. George \V. Cavanaugh, Cornell I'niversity, Ithaca, N. "^ .

It will bo seen that pea-vine silage is richer in protein than is corn
silage, about the same in fat, but not quite so rich in nitrogen-free
extract.

PEA- VINE SILACJE FOR DAIRY COWS.

The results of few carefully conducted feeding experiments with
pea-vine silage for dairy cow^s are recorded. Mr. Joseph Gerber, who
owns a small dairy in Fremont, Mich., conducted a ninety-day test
with corn silage, pea silage, and clover hay, feeding twelve cows dur-
ing the entire test 4 pounds a day of a mixture of equal parts of corn
meal and oil meal. The silage and hay were not weighed, but the
animals were allowed to have what they would eat up clean. The
milk was separated and the cream sold. No record w^as kept of the
milk produced, the receipts for cream only being taken into con-
sideration.

For the first thirty-day period, ending March 31, the cows were
fed on corn silage and the receipts for cream were $87. For the next
thirty days they were fed pea-vine silage and the receipts for cream
were $96. During the last thirty-day period clover hay was fed and
the receipts for cream were only $66. These results show a slight
increase in favor of pea-vine silage over corn silage.

Pea-vine silage is especially valuable for late summer feeding,
when pastures are short and before new corn silage is available. A
prominent Michigan dairyman states that as a result of three years'
experience he is satisfied that pea-vine silage is as good or better than
corn silage, provided it is properly kept. lie prefers it to corn silage
for summer feeding. One year he fed about 75 tons, with good
results.

In some localities where the canners are selling silage the farmers^
are hauling it as many as 7 miles to feed their dairy cows and are
getting considerably increased yields of milk. In some cases they
report getting one-third more milk by feeding the silage.

A New York dairyman states that in his experience when pea
silage is fed with the same quantity of gi'ain it will produce more
milk than corn silage. He does not consider it as good for other

[Civ. 45]

8 UTILIZATION OF PEA-CANNEEY REFUSE FOE FORAGE.

stock, with the exception of sheep, as corn sihige. He winters about
50 head of cattle and when spring comes they are always in good
condition. The onty objection he has to the silage is the bad odor
and the fact that it is very heavy to handle.

The principal objection raised to pea-vine silage is that it some-
times taints the milk. This may be prevented by postponing feeding
until after milking.

Another dairyman states that he secured the best results by alter-
nating pea-vine silage with corn silage, feeding one for two or three
weeks, then changing to the other. The pea-vine silage invariably
increased the flow of milk, but also tended to decrease its keeping
qualities.

PEA-VINE SILAGE FOR BEEF CATTLE.

Pea-vine silage has little value as a fat i)ioducer, Init regardless of
this fact it is very highly regarded as a supplementary feed for beef
cattle. Quite a number of feeders are using the silage, and almost
invariably they claim that their cattle keep in much better condition
than where no silage is fed. One New York canner writes that he
annually feeds from 250 to 275 steers on the refuse vines from his
factory. He begins feeding silage with a little corn meal in the winter.
The amount of meal is gradually increased until the animals are on
a fidl ration. They are usually fhiished off and ready for beef early
in June.

The following is extracted from a letter from a canning comi)any
at Rome, N. Y. :

We have used the silo for many years in which to preserve this by-product. We
grow from 700 to 1,000 acres of peas in connection with our plant, and the waste from
this, as well as from what the farmers grow for us, we find very valuable for both horses
and cattle. We use no hay whatever in feeding our stock, including the work horses,
and they seem to enjoy the feed and thrive on it. In the fall we usually purchase
several hundred head of cattle, which we winter, feeding them on silage exclusively.
In this way we secure fertilizer to assist in keeping up our farm. The farmers in the
vicinity would be glad to buy all the silage we have, but we prefer to keep the manure
for our farms. We have handled this waste in silos and by other methods for many
years, and after varied experiences have finally concluded that this is the best method.

PEA-VINE SILAGE FOR SHEEP.

In many sections of New York and Wisconsin pea-vine silage has
come to be very highly regarded as a feed for sheep. In Wisconsin
a large number of lambs and wethers that are being fattened for the
market are fed on this silage in ])ieference to any other roughage.
The common practice is to take the sheep off of the pastures about
the 1st of November and put them on a ration of silage and com
meal. At first they are given about 10 pounds of silage and from
one-half to 1 pound of meal each day. The quantity of silage is

[Cir. 4.'3]

grac

UTILIZATION OF PEA-CANNERY REFUSE FOR FORAGE. 9

lually decreased and the meal increased, until at the end of thirty
or forty days they are getting; 6 pounds of silage and about 2 pounds
of corn meal. It generally tnkes from forty to fifty days to fit sheep
for the market on a ration of this kind. The silage is not credited
with having any particular value as a I'nt producer. Its great value
Hes in the fact that it keeps the animals in good condition, so that
they can better assimilate the grain.

It seems to be quite generally conceded that a fine quality of
mutton is produced by feeding pea-vine silage that is well kept. In
the fall of 1908 a lot of 442 western wethers that had been fed on
pea-vine silage and corn in Wisconsin foi- fifty days topped the
Cliicago market for heavy export shee}) the day they were sold.

Pea-vine silage is an excellent winter feed for breeding ewes. Its
laxative qualities keep the bowels in good condition and it produces
a large flow of milk. vSome sheep breeders who have had (piite an
extensive experience in feeding this silage prefer it to anything else
they can get for their breeding ewes. One large breeder in western
Now York winters annually from 600 to 700 breeding ewes on pea-vine
silage and alfalfa hay, without any grain. His ration is 6^ pounds of
silage and 2 pounds of alfalfa hay for each head daily. His ewes
come through the winter in fine condition, and their lambs, which
come in May, are invariably strong and healthy. He states that he
considers this silage superior to all other feed for breeding ewes.

Pea-vine silage has been very successfully used as an exclusive
roughage ration for horses, beef cattle, and sheep. When used in
this way, the animals are usually fed all they will eat up clean . Horses
and cattle will consume from 40 to 80 pounds a day, wliile sheep will
eat from 6 to 12 pounds daily.

MARKET VALUE OF PEA-VINE SILAGE.

The selling price of pea-vine silage varies considerably. Some can-
ners put it up in stacks and sell it in the winter at $1 a load. Others
sell it at from $1.50 to $3 a ton. After farmers, especially those
engaged in dairying, have learned the value of tlfis feed the canners,
as a rule, can not supply the demand at $3 a ton.

PEA-VINE HAY.

The curing of pea vines for hay is a common method of handling
them in many sections. This is a popular practice when the farmer
is supposed to take home his quota of vines. Farmers living near the
factory generally take the freshly thrashed vines home and spread
them out to cure on sod land, while those who live some distance away
usually spread the vines out to cure on vacant land near the factory.
At some factories, if there ha})pens to be a surplus of vines from the

10

UTILIZATION OF PEA-CANNERY REFUSE FOR FORAGE.

peas grown, either by the farmers or by the company, these are cured
by the company (see %. 3) and sold to the farmers at about the cost
of curing. This price runs from $3.50 to %A a ton, and many farmers,
especially those living some distance from the factory, prefer to pay
this rather than bother with curing the vines themselves.

Pea- vine hay is greatly relished by horses, cattle, and sheep.
Many dairymen prefer it to the best clover hay as a roughage for
their cattle. In the winter even hogs will eat quantities of it, and
it is an excellent feed for brood sows.

There is considerable difference of oi)inion regarding the value of
the hay as compared with the silage. Men who have tried both are
divided in opinion, some contending that the hay is far superior and

Fig. 3.— Curing vines for liay at a canning factory.

more economical to handle, while others claim just the opposite.
It is generally conceded, however, that properly cured pea-vine hay
is superior to clover hay for dairy cows. Some dairymen go so far
as to say that they consider pea-vine hay worth twice as much as
clover hay, but this is undoubtedly an exaggeration.

Pea-vine hav is also a, good feed for work horses and mules and is
especially valuable for conditioning thin, overworked animals. In
giving his experience with pea-vine silage and hay, ISfr. J. F. Guenther,
of Owensboro, Ky., made the following statement:

We used a larfrc .silo and ])Ut our pea vincy in it the first year we packed peas. We

found that neither farmers nor dairymen would buy our silage from us. The next

year we dried the pea vines and found this was much better than making silage from

them. Pea-vino hay is so far superior to silage that there is no comparison. Besides,

[Cir. 4.5 J

UTILIZATION OF PEA-CANNERY REFUSE FOR FORAGE. 11

thf hay can be hali-d aiitl t^tnivd away and has a market value in any section of the
country, whereas you are confined to your own immediate neighborhood in the pea

silage.

After getting done with our farm work we had a large number of horses and mules on
hand and put them to work at railroad excavating. When they came back they were
in ]>r(>tty thin order and very much the worse for wear. We built a very large rack
out in a lot we had, so that the mules and the horses could go to the pea vines and eat
all they wanted. With the addition of a small amount of grain all the horses and
mules were seal fat inside of six weeks. 1 ha\'e never fed anything that improved
stock so rapidly as these pea vines.

CURING THE VINES FOR HAY.

In curino; pea vin(\s for hay they should be taken directly from the
Anner, spread out on the ground, and left during the day. The next
morning, after the sun has dried the dew off, they should be thor-
oughly stirred up with forks or a tedder. If the weather conditions
are favorable, they should be stirred up again after noon and then
raked into windrows and put up in cocks. The next day they can
be stacked or stored in the barn or shed. When the cured vines are
stacked they should be covered with some material which will shed
rain, as they readily take up water and are easily spoiled when wet.

In settled weather a good practice is to spread the vines out and
let them lie in the sun for a day; then put them up in cocks and let
them remain for three or four days. The cocks should be opened
and the vines spread out on a bright day so as to dry out the hay in
the bottom, which sometimes absorbs considerable moisture, and
then hauled to the barn. Some make a practice of sprinkling 5 or 6
pounds of salt over each load as it is placed in the barn, believing
that this increases the palatability of the hay.

MARKET VALUE OF PEA-VINE HAY.

It is rather difficult to determine the market value of pea-vine hay,
as the greater portion of it is fed by the producer. Where it has been
sold, however, the prices quoted range all the way from $4.50 to $20
a ton, the average being about $12 when clover hay is worth $10.

PEA VINES AS A SOILING CROP.

As a green feed or soiling crop the refuse pea vines are probably
the equal of any crop grown. Dairymen universally agree that feed-
ing the green vines increases the flow of milk. The use of vines as a
soiling crop, however, is confined to a comparatively limited area
in the immediate vicinity of a cannery or vincr.

PEA VINES AS A FERTILIZER.

Pea vines have considerable valde when used as a fertihzer, espe-
cially on soils that are deficient in humus. They are rich in that all-

[Cir. 4.- J

12 UTILIZATIOX OF PEA-CANNERY REFUSE FOR FORAGE.

important element of plant food, nitrogen. The following analysis
was made by Prof. George W. Cavanaugh, of Cornell University:

Moisture 72.800 per cent.

Nitrogen 0.585 per cent, or ii.7 pounds a ton.

Phosphoric acid 0.111 per cent, or 2.22 pounds a ton.

Potash 0.432 per cent, or 8.64 pounds a ton.

At current prices the fertilizing value of 1 ton of pva vines would
be as follows:

Nitrogen, 11.7 pounds, at 18 cents a pound .$2.11

Phosphoric acid, 2.22 pounds, at 4i cents a pound 10

Potash, 8.64 jxiunds, at 4h cents a pound ;i9

Total value per ton 2. 60

From these figures it will be seen that the refuse vines have a fer-
tilizing value of $2.60 a ton, which makes them well worth using for
this purpose. It would be much better economy, however, to feed
the vines either as a soiling crop, as silage, or as hay, and to save the
droppings from the animals fed, in this way serving a twofold pur-
pose. As but a small part of the fertilizer constituents is lost in pass-
ing through an animal, the droppings, if carefully saved, are nearly
as valuable for fertilizing as the whole vines.

SUMMARY.

The refuse vines from ])ea canneries are valuable as silage, as hay,
as a soiling crop, and as a fertilizer. Their use as silage is the most
general 'practice. They may be ensilaged either in a silo or in a stack.

Pea-vine silage compares very favorably with corn silage and by
many is regartled as superior, especially for dairy cows. It is also
valuable for beef cattle and sheep and is sometimes fed to horses,
mules, and hogs. It has been successfully used as an exclusive
roughage for dair}^ and beef cattle, sheep, and even horses.

Pea-vine hay is a valuable feed for all classes of stock. It is of ex-
ceptional value for milch cows and sheep and for conditioning thin
stock, especially horses and mules. It is generally considered to be
equal or even superior to clover hay.

Pea vines are valuable as a soiling crop, but their use as such is
limited to the immediate vicinity of the cannery or viner.

As a manure, pea vines have an actual fertilizer value of about
$2.60 a ton.

Ap])roved:

James Wilson,

Seeretarji of Agriculture.

Washington, 1). (\, Decemher 3, 1909.

[Cir. 4.')]

o

Issued Decembor 2S, 1909.

U. S. DEPy\RTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 46.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE LIMITATION OF THE SATSUMA ORANGE
TO TiU FOLIATE-ORANGE STOCK.

j^Y MHW YORK

30TANICAL

WAITER T. vSWINGLE, qarden.

Physiologist ix Charge of Crop Physiology and
Breeding Investigations.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1900

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, Albert F. Woods.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

[Cir. 46]
. 2

B. r. I.— 531.

THE IJMITATIOX OF THE SATSUMA ORANGE TO
TRirOLlATl:-()KANGE STOCK."

INTRODUCTION.

The Satsuma orange is a variety which has come to be widely
grown in the warmer parts of the Gulf ^States. Without entering
into a discussion as to the merits and demerits of this variety, it is
proposed in this circular to call attention to the fact that unlike most
commonly grown varieties it succeeds only when grafted on Trifoliate-
orange stock and is a complete failure on the sour-orange stock upon
which almost all other citrus fruits can be grown successfully.

In view of the fact that large experimental and even commercial
plantings of the Satsuma orange are being made in nearly all of the
Gulf States and that Satsuma trees are being offered for sale on sour-
orange stock, it is considered advisable to call attention to the certain
failure which will result from planting Satsuma oranges budded on
sour stock. Fortunately a simple method has been discovered for
identifying with certainty Trifoliate stock, which makes it easy to
guard against the fradulent substitution of sour-orange or an}- other
stock for the Trifoliate.

HISTORY OF THE TRIFOLIATE ORANGE IN THIS COUNTRY.

Growers of citrus fruits in this countr}' have long been accustomed
to use the sour orange ami the sweet orange as stocks, while in recent
years the rough lemon and to a lesser extent the grapefruit have come
into use. These show widely different adaptation to soil conditions,
as well as greatly varying powers of disease resistance.

Among the stocks which have come into prominence during the
past few decades is the hardy Trifoliate orange of China and Japan.

a During the last few years there have been extensive plantings of the Satsuma
orange in the warmer parts of the Gulf States. Without entering into a discussion
as to the value of this variety and the prospects for growing and marketing it success-
fully on a commercial scale, Mr. Swingle wishes to call attention in the present cir-
cular to the unusually sharp limitations of this variety to a single stock — the Trifoliate
orange. It is believed to be desirable to warn all who desire to test the variety against
purchasing trees budded on the sour orange, a stock remarkably well adapted to almost
all other kinds of citrus fruits, but which Mr. S\vingle finds to fail entirely for this
particular variety.

A simple method for distinguishing the Trifoliate orange from all other stocks fs
pointed out, rendering it easy to protect purchasers of Satsuma oranges against the
substitution of sour-orange for Trifoliate stock. — B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau.

[Cir. 46] 3

LIMITATION OF SATSUMA OEANGE.

[Cir. 46]

Fig. 1.— a fruiting branch of the Trifoliate orange. (Natural size.)

LIMITATION OF SATSUMA ORANGE. 5

This was introduceil into this country by the J)ci)artment of Agri-
culture in 1869 and was at first little more than a botanical curiosity.
It was soon found to be an excellent hedge plant in the South, and
even as far north as Washington, D. C, and for many years it was
grown for tliis purpose. The fact that it is able to withstand without
injury temperatures as low as zero Fahrenheit, or even lower, makes
it suitable for culture over nearly half the area of the United States.
Those forms of the Trifoliate orange which have fully developed
flowers are handsome ornamentals, especially when the}' blossom in
the spring and again when laden with fragrant yellow fruit in the
autumn. Unfortunately many of the Trifoliate orange trees grown
in this country do not develop their flowers perfectly, or, at least, not
all of their flowers, the petals being stunted and shortened by gland-
like growths on the edges near the base. The flowers are shown
natural size in Plate I. A fruiting branch is shown in figure 1 , and
fruits in cross section and in longitudinal section in figures 2 and 3.

Fig. 2.— Cross section of a fruit of the Fia. 3.— Longitudinal section of a

Trifoliate orange. fruit of the Trifoliate orange.

(Natural size. ) ( Natural size. )

It would be very easy, however, to breed up a large-flowered race of
the Trifoliate orange that could be propagated very rapidly and
cheaplv from the superabundant seeds that fill the fruits.

The Trifoliate orange has been used for ages in China and Japan as
a stock upon which to bud the cultivated citrus fruits, and about the
middle of the last century it was brought to notice in England as a
stock for the kumquat. This latter species itself was, however,
only a curiosity, and apparently very few experiments were made in
Europe with the Trifoliate orange as a stock for oranges, lemons, and
other common citrus fruits.

About a quarter of a centur}' ago the Trifoliate orange began to be
used in this country as a stock for the Satsuma orange, as well as for
other citrus fruits. It was found that all grow well on this stock, and
that it had a tendency to force early and profuse bearing, at the
same time dwarfing the tree somewhat.

[Cir. 46]

6 LIMITATION OF SATSUMA OKANGE.

Although the Trifohate is naturally a small tree and of slow
growth, when used as a stock its growth is so stimulated that its
diameter always continues greater than that of the scion. This
disparity in size, while not sufficient to make the union a poor one,
makes it easy in walking through a grove of citrus fruits budded on
this stock to detect the point of union of the scion with the stock
because of the abrupt increase in diameter of the latter.'^

The Trifoliate-orange stock has one disadvantage in comparison
with sour-orange, sweet-orange, and other commonly used stocks —
it does not sprout readily from the root if the top is killed by a
severe frost. For this reason varieties grafted on Trifoliate roots and
grown where there is danger of occasional severe freezes should always
be earthed up a few inches above the point of insertion of the bud, so
that in case the top is killed by a severe freeze the budded variety can
be reproduced by sprouts issuing from that part of the trunk which
is protected by the earth. If this precaution is neglected there is
danger of orange trees grafted on Trifoliate stock being killed out-
right, root^ and branch, by an unusually severe winter.

THE KUMQTJAT SUCCEEDS BEST ON TRIFOLIATE-ORANGE STOCK.

There are very few varieties of citrus fruits that do not succeed on
the Trifoliate stock, provided, always, the soil is adapted to the stock.
Some varieties succeed better on this stock than on any otiier. Per-
haps the most striking example of this is the kumquat, which is the
hardiest of the evergreen citrus fruits. On Trifoliate stock it bears
heavy crops of fruit while still a mere bush.

On the other hand, the kumquat is not adapted for budding on sour-
orange stock, and such buds often fail to grow, or even die, after they
have started to push, something very rare among citrus fruits.'^

THE SATSUMA ORANGE A FAILURE ON SOUR-ORANGE STOCK.

Another variety of citrus fruits that behaves very differently on
the various stocks is the Satsuma, a very early orange of the mandarin
class introduced from Japan, where it is known as the Unshiu. This
variety, which is the earliest and at the same time one of the hardiest

a This form of union wherein the stock slightly outgrows the scion has been noticed
also in the case of the loquat grafted on the quince growing at Eustis, Fla. In this
case, also, the variety so grafted began to bear when still very young and has borne
abundant crops since. It is interesting to note that in both of these cases we have a
large-leaved evergreen plant grafted on a small-leaved deciduous and not very closely
related species. The contrary union, where the scion outgrows decidedly the stock,
is apparently not satisfactory, the scion being likely to break off and being usually
short lived, even when it escapes being broken off.

- h The Trifoliate root, strictly speaking, is not killed outright, but as it ]>roduces no
sprouts it soon dies from starvation.

c For these facts the writer is indebted to Mr. Q. L. Tabor, of (ileu St. Mary, Fla.

[Cir. 40]

Circ. 46, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate

A Flowering Branch of the Trifoliate Orange, Showing the Flower Fully
Expanded before the Leaves Appear. (Natural Size.)

LIMITATION OF SATSUMA ORANGE. 7

of the oranges,'* grows very well on sweet-orange stock — better, in
fact, than on the Trifoliate orange on most soils — but the fruit is of
decidedly inferior quality on the former stock, being coarse, dry, and
insipid, besides ripening later than on the Trifoliate stock.

On the sour orange the Satsuma is a complete failure, the grow^th
being so slow and stunted that it never becomes more than a dwarfed
bush. The fruit that is borne by this stunted top is of vcr}^ inferior
quality. There is every evidence of a considerable degree of incom-
patibility betw^een the Satsuma and the sour orange. It is no exag-
geration to say that he who plants a Satsuma orange tree grafted on
sour stock might better bury a five-dollar bill and burn the tree,
which, if planted, wall linger along for years, only to be finally dug up
as worthless. Inquiry among growlers of Satsuma oranges in Florida,
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and northern ^lexico has
failed to elicit a single instance of successful growth and satisfactory
fruiting of this variety budded on sour-orange stock. The writer
was stationed for five years in Florida investigating citrus fruits in
all parts of the State, and during that time he never saw a vigorous
Satsuma tree or any good crops of early-ripening fine-flavored Sat-
suma oranges borne on trees budded on sour-orange stock.

THE SATSUMA ORANGE BEST ADAPTED TO TRIFOLIATE-ORANGE

STOCK.

On the other hand, the Satsuma budded on the Trifoliate orange
produces fruits which ripen early and are of excellent quality, smooth
skimied, firm, and juicy. The trees budded on this stock are smaller
than those budded on sweet-orange stock, but they bear earlier and
fruit more profusely. They also ripen their fruits earlier in the
season and are decidedly hardier.

The Satsuma orange is the only one of the commonly gro-wn citrus
fruits (besides the kumquat) which shows such marked differences
in growth and character of fruit when budded on different stocks.
Since the Satsuma orange can succeed on but one stock, the Tri-
foliate orange, it can be grown with hope of commercial success only
on soils to which the Trifoliate stock is adapted, namely, on fairly
rich, somewhat moist soils, preferably sandy soils with a clay subsoil.
It is almost impossible to successfully grow orange trees budded
upon Trifoliate stock on light, sandy soils such as make up the bulk
of the soil of southern Florida and parts of southern Texas.

o Growth ceases at an early period in autumn, and, when once the last growth has
hardened, the tree can endure a considerable spell of very warm weather without being
forced into growth. This high degree of winter dormancy is what renders the Satsuma
80 well adapted for culture in the variable climate of the Gulf States. As to the quality
of the fruit of the Satsuma, there are wide differences of opinion. This is due in large
part to its greatly varying quality, depending on the stock upon which it is budded
and on the soil and climate of the locality where it is grown.
[Cir. 46]

8

LIMITATION OF SATSUMA GRANGE.

In case the soil is not adapted to the Trifoliate orange, there is
little hope of gro^^^ng the Satsuma orange successfully unless some
new stock not as yet known is found adapted to this
variety and able to grow on light soils. As a last
resort, grapefruit, citrange,'^ or some other stock could
be tested, but it is useless to set out trees of this variety
grafted on sour-orange stocks.

HOW TO DISTINGUISH TRIFOLIATE FROM SOUR-
ORANGE STOCK.

In 1887, Prof. Otto Penzig, director of the botanic
garden at Genoa, Italy, published a very interesting
account of citrus fruits for the Department of Agri-
culture, Industry, and Commerce
of the Italian Government. In the
course of his investigations of the
anatomy of the principal types
of citrus fruits, he discovered a
striking difference in the structure
of the pith of the Trifoliate orange
as compared with that of other
citrus fruits.''

If a section be made lengthwise
of a stem or twig of the Trifoliate
orange, the pith is found to con-
tain rows of cells arranged so as to
form more or less imperfect partitions some-
what like the partitions in the pith of the wal-
nut. Such a section of the Trifoliate orange
showing the cross plates of thick-walled cells
in the pith is shown in figure 4 to be contrasted
with figure 5, showing the absence of any such
plates in the pith of the sour orange. A few of the thick-walled
cells which make up the imperfect longitudinal cross partitions of the
Trifoliate orange are shown under higher magnification in figure 6.

Fig. 4.— Longi-
tudinal section
of the pith of
the Trifoliate
orange, show-
ing the thick-
walled, pitted
cells that make
up the imper-
fect cross
plates. (Mag-
nified 56 diame-
ters.) (Drawn
by Dr. Theo.
Holm.)

Fig. 5. — Longitudinal sec-
tion of the pith of the
sour orange. Note the
absence of any thick-
walled cells. (Magni-
fied 56 diameters.)
(Drawn by Dr. Theo.
Holm.)

a The citrange is a hardy citrus fruit originated by the Department of Agriculture
by crossing the common orange and the Trifoliate orange. Citranges grow more vigor-
ously than either parent, and some varieties can be reproduced practically unchanged
from the numerous seeds. Because of their vigor and their being half orange, cit-
ranges can be expected to thrive in soils too light for the straight Trifoliate. As the
Satsuma orange grows rapidly on sweet-orange stock and fruits well on Trifoliate
Btock, it would probably succeed on the citrange, a hybrid of these two stocks.

b Penzig, O. Studi botanici sugli agrumi e suUe piante affine, in Annali di Agricol-
tura, 1887, p. 137, pi. 13, fig. 6 (Ministero di Agricoltura, ludustria e Commercio).
Rome, 1887.
[Cir. 46]

LIMITATION OF SATSUMA ORANGE.

9

Fig. 6.— a small group of thick-walled cells
from the pith of the Trifoliate orange. (Mag-
nified 372 diameters.) (Drawn by Dr. Theo.
Holm.)

A longitudinal section of the pith of the sour orange is shown in
figure 5. It will be noted that there is an entire absence of cross
partitions, and there are no thick walls to be seen. All of the ordi-
nary types of citrus fruits, including
the sour orange and all that are
ever used as stocks in this country,
have pith of this cliaractcn* without
an}' trace of cross partitions built up
out of thick-walled cells.

These peculiar cells are of such a
striking character as to make it easy,
by using a low-power microscope, to
distinguish between Trifoliate and
sour orange stocks — in fact, to dis-
tinguish Trifoliate-orange from any
other citrus stock — with absolute cer-
tainty. To make such an examina-
tion it is of course necessary to take
out some of the pith of the stock.
In the case of nursery stock this
can even be done, if desired, without killing the plant, since a cut
extending half wa}^ tlirough — necessary to take out the pith — will
soon Ileal up.

WARNING AGAINST THE PURCHASE OF SATSUMA ORANGES ON

SOUR-ORANGE STOCKS.

In spite of the fact that Satsuma oranges budded on sour-orange
stock are known to be a total failure, some nurserymen have budded
them largely on this stock and are even offering tliem for sale on
the ground that the Trifoliate stock does not succeed on light, sandy
soil, whereas sour-orange stock does succeed in such situations. All
this is perfectly true, but no mention is made of the additional and
very important (jualification that the Satsuma orange budded on
sour-orange stock is perfectly worthless from a commercial point of
view on anv soil.

In view of these facts, this occasion is taken to urge intending
purchasers of Satsuma oranges to insist that they be budded on
Trifoliate-orange stock. In no case should they be accepted on
sour-orange stock. If the experiment is to be made of growing
Satsuma oranges in a region where the soil is light, especially in
southern Florida and southern Texas, it may be worth while to experi-
ment with the Satsuma on certain other stocks, such as grapefruit
or seedling citrange, but there is little hope for financial success in
growing Satsuma oranges in such situations.

[Clr. 46]

10 LIMITATION OF SATSUMA OKANGE.

In order to make it possible for orange growers to be sure that
they are getting plants grafted on Trifoliate-orange stock, the De-
partment of Agriculture will undertake temporarily to determine,
free of charge, whether or not nursery stock of citrus fruits is grafted
on Trifoliate-orange stock. It is hoped that this method will be
adopted by state horticultural inspectors and by state experiment
stations, as well as by growers themselves. It is the purpose of this
temporary offer of the Department to make known the possibility
of distinguishing readily whether or not the stock used is the Tri-
foliate orange.

SUMMARY.

It is not the purpose of this circular to discuss the merits or demerits
of the Satsuma orange or to attempt to define the regions in which
it can be grown with reasonable hope of success.

The Satsuma orange is almost a complete failure on sour-orange
stock on any soil and in any climate, and succeeds well only when
budded on Trifoliate-orange stock. It can be grown, but less suc-
cessfully, on sweet-orange, grapefruit, and perhaps rough-lemon
stocks.

The Satsuma orange, being limited to the Trifoliate-orange stock,
can be grown with reasonable hope of success only on soils to which
this stock is well adapted, namely, fairly rich, fairlj^ heavy soils,
preferably with a clay subsoil.

Purchasers of Satsuma orange trees should insist that they be
grafted on T]-i foliate-orange stock, and to protect purchasers against
substitution of trees grafted on sour-orange stock the Department
of Agriculture will undertake for the present to determine whether
or not the stock is Trifoliate orange.

Do not huy Satsmna oranges budded on sour-orange stock! If you
suspect substitution, send a sample to the Department of Agriculture
for determination.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, December 6, 1909.

[Cir. 46]

o

Issued January 26, 1910.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 47.
B. T. (iALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

PRICKLY COMFREY AS A FORAGE

CROP.

H. N. VINALL,

Scientific Assistant, Office of Forage-Crop
Investigations.

WASHIHQTOM ; GOVERNMENT PftlNTING OfFICE : 1910

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

Chief of Bureau , Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, Alburt F. Woods.
Editor, 3. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

[Cir. 47]
o

B. P. I. -.53-1.

PRICKLY COMFREY AS A FORAGE CROP."

INTRODUCTION.

Prickh- coinfrey {Sympltntvrn asperrimum Donn) is a peroniiial
herbuceous plant, a native of the Caucasus region of Europe, whicli
was introduced into En<^land as early as 1801. Apparently it was
iirst grown in the United States near Richmond, Va., in 1S76. Tlie
only recorded importation of this plant by the Department of Agri-
culture was made in February, 1899, from France. In 1830 it
attracted attention in England as a forage plant, and from that date
until 187G or later some little interest was exhibited in its dissemina-
tion by agriculturists. Thomas Christy, jr., of London, was especially
prominent in its advertisement and published a lengthy article''
descriptive of its value as a food for hogs, sheep, and dairy cows,
especially as a soiling crop and in the form of ensilage.

Although prickly comfrey was grown rather extensively years ago
ill Europe and to some extent in the United States, it has never
attained any considerable importance in either country as a forage
crop. At the present time it is probably grown more generally in
(lerm.-iny than in any other country, and its success there may be
ascribed to the intensive methods of cultivation employed on small
farms, a practice which calls for some crop that will respond with
large yields to heavy applications of fertilizer. Only under such meth-
ods can the yields of forage mentioned in reports from Germany be
expected. None of the government experiment stations in European
countries have seen fit (o commend prickly comfrey in their reports
so far as noted.

« Prickly comfrey has been grown as a forage crop to some extent in Europe, and in
-scattered instances with success in this country. Its general standing, however, has
not seemed to warrant an extended trial by the Department of Agricultm-e. Recently
advertisements making exaggerated claims regarding its value as a forage crop
have appeared in newspapers and circulars. It is therefore deemed advisable to pub-
lish in a concise form the results of tests of this croj) at several state experiment sta-
tions, together with a brief description of the plant and du-ections for its culture. This
will enable intending growers to draw their own conclusions as to its probable value
for their purposes.— B. T. Gallow.\y, Chief of Bureau.

''Christy, Thomas, jr. Forage Plants and Their Economic Conservation by the
New System of "Ensilage," Part I. London, 1877.

Hir. 47] 3

4 PRICKLY COMFREY AS A FORAGE CROP.

DESCRIPTION OF PRICKLY COMFREY.

The seed stalks of prickly comfre}' reach a height of 2 to 4 feet and
are surrounded by numerous long, heavy, rough leaves of a dark-
green color somewhat mucilaginous in texture. (See fig. 1.) The
bright-blue flowers are borne in nodding, one-sided clusters (fig. 2, ..4).
The roots are large and fleshy and in loose soil will reach a depth of

Fig. 1.— a plant of prickly coinfvey in hlooni.

8 or 9 feet. The plant is hardy anil will endure consiik'rable cold or
drought, nuikhig a very rapid growth when conditions are favorrt])le.

PROPAGATION OF THE PLANTS.

Although the prickly comfrey produces large crops of seed, only a
small percentage of this seed will germinate, so it is generally found
more practicable tt) plant new fields hy division of the roots than by

[Cir. 47]

PRICKLY COMFREY AS A FORAGE CHOP.

Fig. 2.— a, a flowering si em of prickly coinfrey; B. a crown cutting; C a taproot cutting.

tC'ir. 47]

6 PRICKLY COMFREY AS A FORAGE CROP.

seed. These root cuttings may be either crown cuttings (fig. 2, B) or
transverse sections of the lower taproots (fig. 2, C), and they may be
quite small, so that the number secured from a single plant will be
considerable even in one year. They are planted in rows, usually
about 3 feet apart each way, or 3 feet between the rows and 1^ to 2
feet apart in the row, the distance depending on the fertility of the
soil. When first planted, the young sets must be given frequent and
thorough cultivation. The sets made from crown cuttings usually
bloom the first year, while those made from pieces of the taproots will
not bloom as a rule until the second season.

CULTURE OF THE CROP.

Cultivation should be continued after each cutting until the plants
are large enough to shade the ground, and a light top-dressing of
manure should be given the field after each cutting if large and fre-
quent crops are to be expected. The cuttings should always be made
before seed has formed. From three to six crops a year may be ob-
tained, and in good soil a field is supposed to last from fifteen to
twenty j^ears without replanting, returning a yield of 10 to 40 tons .
of green feed per acre each year.

VALUE OF PRICKLY COMFREY AS A SOILING CROP FOR DAIRY

COWS.

It is as a soiling crop for dairy cows that comfrey has provetl of
most value. Dr. Henry Foster, of Chfton Springs, N. Y., has been
in the past the most enthusiastic advocate of comfrey for this pur-
pose." Doctor Foster top-dressed his fields with manure after each
cutting and cultivated thoroughly. In this way he claimed to have
secured a yield of 50 tons per acre in five cutthigs. According to
his statement the cows ate it greedily, and no other crop equaled it
in producing quantity and quality of milk.

At the New York Agricultural Experiment Station" dairy cows at
first refused to eat green comfrey. Corn meal was then sprinkled
over the comfrey in the manger, but it was knocked ofl" and licked
up from the bottom of the feed boxes. As a last resource, salt was
scattered over the comfrey and the animals were thus induced to eat
it. They soon became fond of it and afterwards ate it readil}' with-
out salting.

VALUE OF PRICKLY COMFREY FOR FEEDING HOGS.

Experiments were carried on at the New York Agricultural Exi)eri-
ment Station'' in which two lots of hogs, averaging 64 pounds each,
were fed during three weeks all the comfre}^ they would eat, in addi-

o Report, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 1887, p. 72.
b Bulletin 22, n. s., New York Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 292-295.
[Cir. 47]

PRICKLY COMFREY AS A FORAGE CROP. 7

tion to "a little coin ineal." The average loss in weight of one lot
was 0.9 pound per week, and of the other lot 1.6 pounds. This loss
was not due to lack of capacity, since in a similar experiment with
mangolds, which contained as great a percentage of water as the coni-
frey, the hogs ate twice as much.

Another test with older pigs was made, using foi- the first six weeks
a ration composed entirely of grain; the next four weeks a ratiim that
was 50 per cent corn ensilage; and the remaining five weeks of the
period a ration containing 50 per cent of comfrey. The comfiey was
fed freshlj^ cut and contained an average of 86.7 per cent of water.
In considering the cost p(M- j)ound of gain, the green comfrey was
rated at SI a ton. In one pen the comfrey and ensilage wei'e salted,
while in another pon the green feed was not salted. Neither lot of
})igs made a j)rofitablo growth while comfre}^ was fed, and the cost
per pound of gain in live weight for the period they were fed comfrey
was 9.53 cents in the pen where salt was not applied and 6.12 cents
in the pen where salt was applied, as against 3.38 cents in the first
pen and 3.07 cents in the second pen when fed the grain ration.

VALUE OF PRICKLY COMFREY AS HAY OR ENSILAGE.

Regarding the use of prickly condVey, the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station reports'^ as follows: "Our trials indicate that it
is of no value either for hay or ensilage. Its use, therefore, is con-
fined to that of a soiling crop." In Europe it has been used to some
extent for silage, but the watery and gummy nature of the leaves is
apt to cause it to heat in the silo and acquire a disagreeable odor.

CROP YIELDS.

From 14 to 16 tons of green matter per acre are reported by the
New York Agricultural Experiment Station," 46 tons by the Ver-
mont station,'* 6^ to 17 i tons b}-^ the North Carolina station, '^ and 33^
tons by the Wisconsin station.'^

In dry matter the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station
reports'' a yield of 6,475 pounds of comfrey to the acre, compared to
7,987 })ounds of red clover.

The Pennsylvania Agricidtural Ex])eriment Station reports « the
3'ield per acre of digestible material in comfrey, Kafir corn, and
cowpeas to be as follows:

"Report, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 1888, pp. 3;i2 and 33:3; 1889,
pp. 221 and 222.

'' Report, Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, 1889, p. 87.
<■ Bulletin 168, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 429-432.
** Rej)ort, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, 1889, pp. 207 and 211.
« Bulletin 6, Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 14-1().
ICir. 4TJ

I.s«U(.'il February 12, I'JIO.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 48.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE
TOBACCO INDUSTRY. ^^*.

zo

BY

WIGHTIVIAN W. GARNER,
Physiologist in Charge of Tobacco Investigations.

24478 10 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFRCE : 1910

[Cir. 481
2

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

M. r. I. r>4L>.

THli PKl-SBNT STATUS OF THE TOBACCO

INDUSTRY.

INTRODUCTION.

Tobacco has occupied an iiiij)()rtant position as a money crop in a
number of the Eastern States since the earhest days of the colonies.
It is a crop which is remarkably sensitive, as regards quaUty, to the
conditions under which it grows, and the requirements for producing
the finer grades are quite exactmg. This fact limits the output of
strictly first-class tobacco, so that this product frequently com-
mands a high i)rice in the market as compared with other crops.
The high prices in some cases warrant intensive systems of produc-
tion, and the discovery of new varieties or new methods of production
may bring large profits to growers in limited areas or in larger areas
for short periods of time. In every such case, however, the history
of the industry shows there has been a readjustment of conditions,
resulting usually from overproduction, bringing about a lower level of
prices, which may leave only a fair margin of profit, or in extreme
cases no profit at all.

The demand for new crops in various sections, brought about by
the needs for diversification in connection with improving crop yields,
controlling diseases and insects, and changes in economic conditions
due to other causes, has served in many cases to direct attention to
the possibility of introducing tobacco culture into new territory as a
money crop. In some instances, moreover, the abnormally large profits
obtained on special types of tobacco grown on a comparatively small
scale have led to the utilization of these results in the exploitation
of large tracts of land thought to be adapted for the special type, often
with the result of disappointment and financial loss to those who are
induced to invest in these enterprises. i

In considering the advisability of undertaking the culture of to-
bacco in any locality, especially in new territory, there are several
important facts concerning the industry which should be kept in
mind, and it is mainly for the purpose of bringing these facts to the
attention of the prospective grower that this publication has been
prepared.

[«'ir. 4S]

4 PRESENT STATUS OF TOBACCO INDUSTRY.

DEVELOPMENT AND SPECIALIZATION OF THE TOBACCO

INDUSTRY.

The culture of tobacco as a commercial crop began in Virginia in
1612 and soon became so profitable that food crops were neglected
and drastic regulations were required to control the output. The
industry promptly spread into Maryland, and when Kentucky was
settled tobacco at once became the principal commodity in that
territory, whence it was carried into Tennessee and Missouri. To-
bacco culture was early introduced into North Carolina from Virginia,
and about 1850 in the former State it received a great impetus from
the discovery of a new process of curing by means of artificial heat.
About 1890 this new phase of the industry became commercially
important in eastern South Carolina.

The New England colonists also early began the culture of the
crop, but it did not become of much commercial importance until
about the middle of the last century. At this time the value of the
tobacco produced in that section for the manufacture of cigars began
to be recognized, and the industry became exceedingly profitable.
From New England the growing of these cigar types was extended
into Pennsjdvania and New York and thence into Ohio and Wiscon-
sin. About 1890 the production of cigar tobaccos from Cuban and
Sumatran seed began to assume importance in Florida and southern
Georgia.

The marked eft'ects of soil and climatic conditions on the character
of the tobacco produced were early recognized, and these influences,
together with improvements in methods of growing and handling,
have brought about important economic readjustments, resulting
finally in a highly specialized industry. The first tobacco produced
in Virginia naturally found a market in the mother country, England,
while the western product went to New Orleans and thence into
France and other European countries. The discovery of distinc-
tively new types, such as Burley, and of new methods of production,
as with the yellow or flue-cured tobacco of Virgmia and the Carolinas,
has modified to some extent the demands of foreign markets, but,
nevertheless, much the same territory has continued for many gen-
erations to supply the principal needs for export purposes. The
demands for domestic consumption, as chewing and smoking tobaccos,
have been modified to a greater extent, perhaps, by these factors, but
here again present requirements are firmly established and can be
changed only under strong influences.

The requirements for cigar tobacco are very exacting, differing
essentially from those for other types of leaf; consequently the pro-
duction of such tobacco, in some of its phases, necessitates culture
of a veiy intensive character. Certain foreign types have come to

LCir. 48]

PRESENT STATUS OF TOBACCO INDUSTKY. 5

be considered as .standards of excellence l)v which all hiirii-u-iade
domestic types must be measured. For many years ell'orts have
been made to reproduce these foreign types in certain sections of the
country, and in some cases these efforts have been largely successful.
The history of the tobacco industr}" in this country furnishes abun-
dant proof of tile fact that tobacco of any given properties or quali-
ties can only be produced imder certain fixed conditions of soil,
climate, etc., and all of tlie established tobacco sections produce
types which arc recognized by the trade as possessing certain definite
characteristics adapted to specific purposes. One section may pro-
duce tobacco ''just as good" as another, yet differing from it suffi-
ciently to prevent its being used for tlie same purpose.

THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF TOBACCO.

As has already been stated, variations in soil and climatic condi-
tions combined with differences in methods of production give rise
to certain well-defined types, and on these are based present market
requirements. The following classification, while not intended to be
complete, is fairly representative of the industry as a whole.

CIGAR TYPES.

Broadly speaking, tlieie are two principal areas producing cigar
tobacco between which lie a group of States producing practically
all of the manufacturing and export types. The northern cigar-
tobacco area includes a large portion of the Connecticut Valle}' in the
States of Connecticut and Massacliusetts; two districts in New York
embracing Onondaga and Chemung and Tioga counties, respectively,
with portions of adjoining counties in each case; Lancaster and ad-
joining counties of Pennsylvania; Montgomery, Miami, and contigu-
ous counties of Ohio, and portions of southern and western Wiscon-
sin. The southern cigar-tobacco area includes Gadsden County,
Florida, and the adjoining county of Decatur, Georgia, with scattering
plantations in adjacent counties, small sections in a few counties of
southern .Vlabama, and Anderson and Nacogdoches counties, Texas.

There ai-e three subtypes of cigar leaf corresponding to tlie three
components of the cigar, namely, wrapper, binder, and filler.

WRAPPER AND BINDER LEAK.

The wrapper, which gives finish to the cigar, is the highest priced
tobacco produced, and for it the trade requirements are most exact-
ing. Color, burning qualities, grain, texture, and elasticity are all
important factors. The product imported from Sumatra is the
standard and commands high prices. The bulk of the domestic
cigar-wrapper leaf is now produced on the light soils of the Coimecti-

[Cir. 48]

6 PRESENT STATUS OF TOBACCO INDUSTRY.

cut Valley and western Florida. Thorough experience and good judg-
ment in the growing and handling of this tobacco from beginning to
end are essential to success. The average yield to the acre in the
Connecticut Valley is about 1,600 pounds. In Florida both Cuban
and Sumatran types are planted, but the latter is believed to produce
the best wrapper. The yield to the acre averages about 1,000
pounds for the Sumatran and 700 to 800 pounds for the Cuban.

Binder leaf may be considered as a lower grade of wrapper, and the
imperfect leaves from wrapper-producing types are largely used for
binder purposes. The requirements for binder are less exacting,
especially as regards color, than for wrapper, and the leaf is generally
heavier than the wrapper grade. Wisconsin is usually classed as a
binder-producing State, for the reason that a large portion of the
output is especially adapted for use as binder. The yield to the acre
in this State averages 1,200 to 1,300 pounds.

THE SHADE-TOBACCO INDUSTRY.

A few years ago it was found in Gadsden Count}', Florida, that
Cuban and Sumatran seed when grown under an artificial shade of
coarse cheese cloth or wooden slats yielded a much higher percentage
of wrapper leaf than when grown by the ordinary method in the open
field. The market price for this product warranted the intensive
methods required in its production, and the industry developed with
extreme rapidity in this county and in Decatur County, Georgia, until
the annual output reached several million pounds. For the past year
or two, however, there has been a -marked decline in market prices, and
as a result the acreage has been much decreased.

For a time the prices obtained by the growers left a good margin
of profit, but at present the market price is little, if any, above the
cost of production. The average yield to the acre has been about
1,000 pounds.

Tobacco is also being grown under artificial shade to a limited
extent in Connecticut, the Cuban type giving the most satisfactory
results.

FILLER LEAF.

Theoretically, each plant of the cigar type produces wrapper,
binder, and filler, the best lower and middle leaves serving for wrapper
and binder and the remainder, especially the heavy upper leaves,
being used as filler. The prime requirement for filler tobacco, how-
ever, is flavor and aroma, and here the Cuban (usually called Havana)
is the standard of excellence. The best filler-producing soils gener-
ally give a product too heavy for use as wrapper or binder, tliough a
small percentage of these latter grades may be obtained. The bulk
of the filler croj) is grown in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Xew York.

[Cir. 4S]

PRESENT STATI'S OF TOBACCO INDUSTRY. 7

Filler leaf is o;rown under a less intensive system than is required
for wra|)j)er, and the tol)acc() soils of these States are, for the most
part, (juite fertile ami well adaptetl to diversified farming. Cio;ar-
wrapper tobacco is crrown mainly on soils too light in character for
protlucing most other crops profitably, and intensive methods with
little diversification prevail. With filler leaf, on the other hand, the
best results are obtained by utilizing tliis as the leading money crop
in a proj)erly arranged rotation system. The average yield of
tobacco to the acre obtained in the fdler districts ranges from 000 to
1,400 ])ounds.

In western Florida, southern Alabama, and eastern Texas a cigar
filler is grown from Cuban seed wliich is characterized by its high
aroma. The soils growing tliis type are less fertile than those of the
northern districts, considerably smaller yields being obtained.

EXPORT TYPES.

The following dark fire-cured and dark air-cured tobaccos are
known as export types:

DARK FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

Western Kentucky and the adjoining counties in Tennessee, to-
gether witli the Piedmont section of central Virginia, produce the
greater portion of the dark export tobacco which is cured with open
fires. This product, which is grown mainly on clay soils, is very
heavy and strong, suited only for export. The soils producing this
tobacco are mostly well adapted to growing wheat, corn, clover, and
grasses, which should be combined with it in a rotation system.
"\Mien grown continuously on the same soil the tobacco rapidly
depletes the fertility and its culture becomes much less profitable.
The average yield to the acre under good management is about 1,000
pounds. The soils of western Kentucky and Tennessee are somewhat
stronger than those of Virginia, and consequently less fertilizers are
used as a rule.

MARYLAND AND EASTERN OHIO AIR-CURED TOBACCO.

In several counties of southern Maryland and a small section of
eastern Ohio a type of dark shij)ping tobacco is produced which is
cured without the use of artificial heat. The bulk of the crop is
marketed in Baltimore, whence it is exported to France and other
European countries. The average yield to the acre is about 700
pounds.

MAXlFACTlinXO TYPES.

The following kinds of tobacco are known as '"manufacturing
types:"

[Cir. 48]

8 PRESENT STATUS OF TOBACCO INDUSTRY.

BURLEY TOBACCO.

The ]aro;e area embraced in north-central Kentucky and a strip of
territory bordering on the Ohio River in Oliio and Inthana, together
with a small area in the southwestern part of West Virginia, produces
the bulk of Burley tobacco, used largely for manufacturing but also
for export. It has thus far reached its liighest commercial develop-
ment in limited areas in Kentucky and southern Oliio. The soil is
of limestone origin and very fertile. These fine bluegrass soils are
much more valuable for general farming than those on wliich the
heavy sliipping types are grown. As would be expected, the average
yield of tobacco to the acre on these soils is considerably above that
on lands producing dark export tobacco. Little or no artificial heat
is used in curing this type.

DARK MANUFACTURING TOBACCO.

In the section of Kentucky and Tennessee lying between the western
export and the Burley districts and in a few counties of Virginia
immeiUately north of the fire-cured belt, types of dark manufacturing
leaf, cured without the use of fires, are extensively produced. In
the northern portion of the Kentucky area, known as the Green River
district, the conditions governing the production of this tobacco are
quite similar to those in the dark export section. The southern
portion, known as the upper Cumberland (Ustrict, grows principally
the so-called "one-sucker" variety. The yield in this district is
somewhat less than that of the Green River district. The Virginia
area produces the so-called sun-cured tobacco much prized for the
manufacture of chewing plug, because of its fine flavor. The average
yield is 700 to 900 pounds to the acre.

BRIGHT FLUE-CURED TOBACCO.

Extending from the lower edge of the dark tobacco belt of Virginia
into northern and eastern North Carolina and eastern South Carolina
is a large territory producing the so-called 3^ellow tobacco, which is
cured entirely with artificial heat introduced into the curing barn
through a system of flues. This product is prized especially for
manufacturmg purposes, though considerable quantities are also
exported. The flue-cured tobacco industry has played a conspicuous
part in the development of a large portion of the Piedmont section of
North Carolina and southern Virginia. It is noteworthy that in tliis
section, now spoken of as the " old belt ' ' of the bright tobacco industry,
the finest quality of leaf is produced on light soils not well adaj^ted
to general farming. Here again, however, as in the case of Burley
tobacco, the rapid extension of the industry into eastern North and
South Carohna, comprising the so-called "new belt," has brought
about a gradual lowering of prices, and the average profits to tiie

[Cii-. 48]

PRESENT STATUS OF TOBACCO INDUSTRY. 9

oTower aro little, if any, above those for most other maniifactiiriui^
and export tyi)es.

The liner fjrades are used as wrappers on manufactured plug; and
command relatively high prices. To produce a high-grade wrai)per
requires just the right sort of soil and favorable seasons combined with
skill and good judgment on the part of the grower. The yield in the
old belt averages 700 to 800 pounds to the acre, while in the new belt,
especially in South Carolina, the average yield is about 100 ])ounds
more to the acre.

PERIQUE.

This product is grown in St. James Parish, La., on a small scale,
and the method of handling is unique. It is highly aromatic, and is
used mostly for blending with other smoking types. Each grower
manufactures his own product into packages known as "carrottes,"
and the entire output is marketed through one concern. " The yield
averages about 450 pounds to the acre.

PRESENT STATUS OF THE INDUSTRY AS REGARDS SUPPLY AND

DEMAND.

It has been pomted out that the tobacco industry has become
highly specialized in that each of the recognized tobacco-growing
districts produces a type of leaf known by the trade to possess definite
qualities which adapt it to certain specific purposes. These various
types are only interchangeable within narrow limits. For exami)le,
the foreign consumer has been accustomed for generations to the
heavy, fire-cured type which would be unacceptable to the consumer
of this country, while the reverse would be true with our manufac-
turmg and cigar types.

Thus any given variety of tobacco or the product of any given
locality in order to prove successful must secure a standing before the
trade on its own merits. In the majority of cases this is likely to
prove an insurmountable difficulty for a new variety or the product
of a new locality. On the other hand, there is always opportunity
for the knprovement in quality and yield of the recognized standard
types of leaf.

Another important factor in the question of supply and demand is
the fact that the manufacturer of an established line of goods must
be reasonably assured of an adequate and permanent source of supply
of known quality.

It is apparent, therefore, that there is a permanent demand for
more or less defmite amounts of certain well-established tyi>es of
tobacco, but as soon as the supply of any of these types greatly
exceeds this demand, prices at once fall to a point where its production
becomes unprofitable. In the few cases in which the discovery of

[Cir. 48]

10 PRESENT STATUS OF TOBACCO INDUSTRY.

now varieties or new methods of production have introduced new or
improved types of leaf, bringing fancy prices in the market, the rapid
increase in their production has forced these prices down to a point
approaching the general level for other similar types.

Since the reciuirements as to soil and climatic conditions and meth-
ods of culture and handling are very exacting in the production of the
finest grades of leaf, overproduction is most frequent in the medium
and lower grades. By far the greatest profits are realized from the
fancy grades of the various types. Nevertheless, the absolute quan-
tities of the finest grades required by the trade are much less than
those of the medium grades, so that under some circumstances even
these may bring relatively low prices.

The average annual production of the various types of tobacco in
the United States in round figures is shown in the following table :

Type of tobacco. Pounds.

Cigar leaf - 160,000,000

Dark export (fire cured) 210, 000, 000

Maryland and eastern Ohio export (air cured ) 22, 000, 000

Dark manufacturing (air cured) 65, 000, 000

Burley WO, 000, 000

Bright flue cured 200, 000, 000

Perique 200,000

847, 200, 000
The relative quantities of the several types, as well as the total
amount produced, vary considerably from year to year, depending
chiefly on the character of the growing season and on prevailing mar-
ket prices for the preceding crops. On the other hand, market prices
are of course strongly influenced by the available and also by the
visible supply. The output is thus automatically regulated to a
large extent by the market demands, rising prices leailing to increased
production, and vice versa. The important point to be observed in
this connection is that the areas which are at present producing the
various types of tobacco are capable of enormously increasing their
output if market demands should warrant such increase. With the
exception of very limited areas producing cigar-wrapper leaf under
intensive systems, the soils in the tobacco districts are, as a rule,
adapted to the growing of other important crops, and only a com-
paratively small portion of the available acreage is used for the cul-
ture of tobacco. It is true, however, that not all of this available
acreage will produce the finer grades of leaf.

Tobacco is a luxury rather than a necessity, so that the demand,
especially in the case of the higher priced goods, is very sensitive to
general financial and trade conditions, periods of general business
depression invariably resulting in a marked decrease in the quantity
of tobacco consumed.

[Cir. 48]

PRESENT STATUS OF TOBACCO INDUSTRY. 11

In the cigar tobaccos, efforts to produce a wrapper leaf to compete
with the imported -Sumatran have led to the development of the
shade-tobacco industry. Because of the high cost of production this
tobacco does not compete with the medium and low-grade domestic
wrapper grown by the ordinary methods, so that the demand is
limited and the acreage necessary to meet this demand is very small.
The annual imports of wra]){)er leaf amount to only about 7,000,000
pounds. Domestic fdler leaf does not yet compete successfully with
the imported Cuban. There is a fairly constant demand for good
domestic filler, but at prices limited by fixed retail prices for domestic
cigars. The demand for these tobaccos, however, is particularly
affected by general business conditions.

In the dark export tobaccos there has been a steady increase in
demand in the past, but it is noteworthy that many of the foreign
countries which have been the chief importers of these types are now
active in promoting the home production of tobacco, and it is quite
possible that future demands for export will be confuaed more and
more to the relatively high grades.

The consumption of chewing and smoking tobaccos in this country-
shows a steady increase, and this of course has required increased
quantities of Burley and other manufacturing types. On the other
hand, tlie prices of Burley and of some of the dark air-cured manu-
facturhig tobaccos have steadily declined, until within the past few-
years concerted action has been undertaken by the growers to curtail
the production.

With the bright flue-cured tobacco, the product of the old belt, as a
whole, appears to be preferred over that of the new belt, and under
present conditions this section is largely dependent on this product as
a money crop. The greater portion of the new belt is adapted to
cotton or peanuts, and only a small portion of the available acreage
is utilized for growing tobacco. The relative production of these
money crops depends largely on their comparative market prices.

From a consideration of these facts concerning supply and demand,
it is not deemed wise under existing conditions to stimulate the culture
of tliis crop in sections wdiich are not already growing it commercially.
Probably no other crop of efjual money value is so strongly influenced
by soil and climatic conditions as regards character and quality of prod-
uct and there is no market demand for types of leaf not already well
known to the trade. Even if a superior type can be produced, a place
must be found for it on the market and the trade must be assured of
an adequate and permanent supply. These are obstacles which it is
generally diflicult to overcome. As regards the types of leaf already
well recognized by the trade, the old tobacco districts are capable of

(Cir. 4SJ

12 PRESENT STATUS OF TOBACCO INDUSTRY.

more than meeting present demands. For these reasons caution
should be used in undertaking the cukure of tobacco on a commer-
cial basis in new territory.

SUMMARY.

From the foregoing considerations regarding the development and
the natural division of the tobacco industry into types, accoiding to
the conditions under which these are produced and the uses to wliich
they are put and the relation of supply to demand in each case, the
following general conclusions may be drawn:

There are a number of distinct types of tobacco produced, each of
which is adapted to certain definite trade requirements.

These differences in type are the result of the variations in soil and
climatic conditions under which the tobacco is grown and, to a lesser
degree, of different methods of production.

The recognized tobacco-growing districts thus produce types of
leaf known by the trade to possess definite qualities which adapt
them to definite purposes.

Present trade requirements as regards type differences are based
largely on the character of the tobaccos produced by sections in which
tobacco culture has long been an important industry and, therefore,
have become firmly established.

The merits of a product from a new locality ov a new variety must
be demonstrated before it will be accepted by the trade, and unless
such a product is practically identical with an established type, with
reference to trade standards, it will generally fail to secure recognition.
Moreover, the sections in which tobacco culture is already firmly
established are capable of greatly increasing their present output of
the various types if market demands should warrant such increase,
hence extension to new territory should not under present conditions
be unduly stimulated.

There is a permanent demand for more or less definite quantities
of certain well-recognized types of tobacco, but any considerable
increase in output above this demand reduces prices to a point where
the crop becomes unprofitable.

In the few instances in which a new variety, as the White Burley, or
the product of new methods of growing and handling, as the bright
flue-cured tobacco, has temporarily commanded fancy ])rices, the
rapid increase in production has reduced the profits to the grower to a
level comparable with those for other similar types. In the case of
the shade-grown cigar tobaccos, which for a time were very jjrofitable
in Florida and Georgia, present prices are such as to leave little or no
profit to the grower.

[Cir. 48]

PRESENT STATUS OF TOBACCO INDUSTRY. 13

There is room for improvement in both the yield and quality of the
output of the different tobacco-growing sections. With the excep-
tion of small areas producing high-grade cigar-wrap|)cr leaf under
intensive systems, and for which there is, relatively, a very limited
demand, the best results are obtained by growing tobacco as a money
croj) in a j)ro|)erly planned rotation system with other crops adapted
to the local conditions.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, January 5, 1910.

[Cir. 48]

o

Issued March 19, 1910.

U. S. DEPART^IEXT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 49.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURES IN EASTERN

NEW YORK AND THE NEW

ENGLAND STATES.

NEW YORK

BOTANICAL

BY QAROEN.

J. S. COTTON,
Assistant Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management.

23351 1910 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1910

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau. G. Harold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.
[Cir. 49] I

2

B. P. I.— 544.

niPROVEMEXT OF PASTURES IN EASTERN NEW
YORK AND THE NEW ENGLAND STATES."

INTRODUCTION.

One of the most importcant problems confronting farmers in the
Eastern States is the improvement of worn-out pastures. This is
especially true in eastern New York and the New England States.
The pastures in this region are of two general types: (1) Those that
are smooth enough to permit cultivation and which, if so desired,
can be included in a rotation system, and (2) those that are too
rough and too rocky to permit cultivation and can only be utilized
as pastures or allowed to grow up to timber. Figures have not been
obtained to show the relative percentage of these two types of pas-
tures. In eastern New York it is probable that the area of each kind
is about the same. In the New England States the country is more
broken, and the rough, broken pasture land that must always remain
as such greatly predominates.

These pastures were cleared of timber from forty to one hundred
years ago, depending somewhat on the locality in which they are
situated. For the most part they were allowed to sod over by nat-
ural processes. So far as can be learned, they have been grazed
continuously from early spring until late fall, practically to their
full grazing capacity, ever since their establishment. During this
time almost no improvement in the way of fertilizing, seeding, or

oNew England is primarily a region of live-stock farming, for the most part dairy-
ing. The problem of the old pastures of that region is closely associated with the
general problem of producing feed for dairy cows on the farms of those States. In
Farmers' Bulletin 337, entitled •'Cropping Systems for New England Dairy Farms,"
it was pointed out that much of the tillable land in this region could be made more
productive by the use of better cropping systems. At that time it was fully realized
that the matter of pastures in this region was also of very great importance, as pas-
tures occupy a large percentage of the area of the average dairy farm. After
further investigations it has been deemed advisable to point out some of the funda-
mental principles in the improvement of these pastures, and this has been done in
this paper, which supplements the bulletin mentioned. — A. F. Woods, Acting Chief
of Bureau.

[Cir. 49] 3

4 IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURES IN EASTERN NEW YORK, ETC.

keeping the weeds down has been attempted. As a result many of
these pastures have been so badly overgrazed that at the present
time they do not produce enough feed to pay for maintaining the
fences, let alone the building of new ones. (See PI. I, fig. 1.) In
many cases weeds have taken complete possession, as is shown in
Plate II, figure 1 . In a number of instances the pastures have been
entirely abandoned and are growing up to young timber.

It is stated that this depreciation has been very rapid during the
last twenty years. There are two reasons for this: First, the depre-
ciation of a pasture as the result of overgrazing will be much greater
during the latter half or even quarter of the period grazed than in
the preceding years. Again, with the increased demand for dairy
products and with better facilities for transportation there has been a
decided tendency on the part of the farmers to buy western grain and
raise only the necessary roughage on their places. This has enabled
them to carry much more stock. With this increase in stock there
has not been any corresponding increase in the size of the pastures,
nor has there been any attempt to increase their carrying capacity.

DAIRY AND BEEF PASTURES CONTRASTED.

The dairy pastures in the region referred to have depreciated very
greatly, and in many instances to the extent that' they have very
little value. In direct contrast there are numerous beef-cattle pas-
tures in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia of the same age that are
fully as productive as ever, and are valued at $100 or more an acre,
even when located 20 to 30 miles from a railroad. In the northwestern
part of Middlesex County, Ontario, there is an area of nearly 300,000
acres that the farmers, owing to scarcity of labor, have rented to
cattle grazers for fattening export cattle. After twenty years'
use practically all of these pastures are as good as ever, and in many
instances have actually improved. Care is taken that these pastures
shall not be overgrazed. If such pastures show any tendency to
depreciation, steps, such as feeding roughage on the high points dur-
ing the winter season to add to the fertility, the application of lime
and bone meal, and other means that may be considered necessary,
are immediately taken to restore them. All weeds that are likely
to prove dangerous are carefully kept out.

In the corn belt men buy badly worn land for $25 an acre, and
b}^ putting it into pastures and feeding cattle on it are able to build
up this land so that in from five to ten years it is worth from $100 to
$125 an acre.

A comparison of eastern pastures with those of the corn belt is
made here only for the purpose of showing that neglected land can be
built up when utilized as pasture and fed upon, or, in other words,

[Cir. 49]

Cir. 49, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

Fig. 1.— Badly Overgrazed Dairy Pastures from which the Valuable Forage Plants

have been practically exterminated.

FiQ. 2.— Native Beef Pastures the Same Age as those Shown in Figure 1, which

HAVE NEVER BEEN OVERSTOCKED.

WORN-OUT AND PRODUCTIVE PASTURES.

IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURES IN EASTERN NEW YORK, ETC

when fertilized, and can be made worth from four to six times as
much as it was previous to the building-up process.

REASONS FOR THE DETERIORATION OF DAIRY PASTURES.

At first glance it would seem that the difference between beef pas-
tures and the eastern New York and New England dairy pastures is
due to difference of soil conditions. However, we find pastures
within a short distance of the highly productive ones and on the same
soil that have been almost denuded of their original vegetation and
that are no more productive than the one sho\\T^i in Plate I, figure 1.
Again, in a few instances small protected areas have been found in
the New York and New England region that are producing a large
quantity of feed. In fact, one such area has been found near the
pasture shown in Plate I, figure 1, but where the soil was not as deep.

The investigations that have been carried on show very plainly
that while the diiference in soil types and climatic conditions modifies
to a greater or less extent the carrying capacity of pastures, the essen-
tial difi'erence between the dairy pastures of this region and the beef
pastures described is more largely due to the methods of management.

RESULTS OF TOO EARLY GRAZING.

. The best cattle grazers have learned that if cattle are turned on
pastures before the grass gets a good start, or, as they term it, ''gets
strong," and is 2 or 3 inches high, the cattle do not do as well and
the pastures are greatly retarded. In the case of New England
pastures, stock are usually turned out before the grass gets a good
start, and more cattle are kept than the pastures will maintain,
extra feeding in the barnyard being practiced.

A study of the life liistory of plants shows us that they must get
a considerable number of green leaves started in order to make any
substantial growth. If the green parts are kept too closely grazed
the plants of necessity will grow slowly, produce very little feed,
and eventually become enfeebled and die out. In spite of this
fact the great majorit}' of eastern farmers consider that it is bad
for a pasture to let the grass get a start, believing that a more dense
sod is obtained by close grazing. The excellent stands of grass
obtained in many of the southern beef pastures where the grass is
allowed to get a good start before it is grazed (PI. II, fig. 2) show that
this statement does not hold true.

RESULTS OF TOO CLOSE GRAZING.

The beef-cattle men have learned that it is very unwise for them
to overstock their pastures. If an animal is to be gotten fat enough

[Cir. 49]

6 IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURES IN EASTERN NEW YORK, ETC,

for market purposes on grass, there must be a luxuriant growth of
it. (See PI. I, fig. 2, and PI. II, fig. 2.) If an attempt is made to
carry too large a number, the animals immediateh" begin to lose flesh.
This means that a beef pasture can not be profitably grazed to a
point where it will be damaged.

Many dairymen consider that cattle do not do as well where the
o-rass sets tall. It is true that if grass is allowed to head out and get
woody live stock do not relish it. The best stockmen have learned
by experience that whenever grass gets ahead of the cattle it is an
easy matter to mow the tall grass, letting it lie on the ground as a
mulch. This allows the grass to again send up a fresh, succident
growth, the pasture and the cattle both being benefited. While
stock do not do as well if the grass is too old, it is equally true that
the grass must be given a chance to get a good start.

Many New England farmers believe that b}^ close grazing weeds
can be kept out. As a matter of fact, this very practice gives the
weeds a better start. In the western part of the United States,
where the rainfall is much less than in the East, the fact that over-
grazing causes weeds to become more abundant has been very defi-
nitely proved. In California, as a result of overgrazing, the original
grasses and forage plants were destroyed. Their places were taken
by other plants that were not relished by live stock, these plants
gaining ground because the stock did not eat them readily. After
the more valuable forage plants disappeared, the stock learned to
eat the plants of inferior character. These in turn were overgrazed
and disappeared, their places being taken by plants having still
less forage value. In this manner the carrying capacity of the Cali-
fornia ranges has been greatly lowered in the course of two genera-
tions.'^

A study of range conditions shows that whenever a dry season
occurs if there is not enough vegetation to make a good ground
cover, as is the case Avith the pasture shown in Plate I, figure 1, the
soil dries out very rapidly and many plants are killed. With the
advent of a more favorable season the weeds usually take their
places. This condition has occurred in eastern New York and the
New England States during the seasons of 1908 and 1909. It will
be even more strikingly shown in 1910 if the season is favorable for
plant growth. The weeds naturally are followed by brush (PI. II,
fig. 1) , and the pasture eventually becomes worthless. Many farmers,
not knowing the remedy, take no steps to prevent this condition of
affairs. They consider that their pastures have "just naturally
played out" and that there is no practical remedy.

o Bulletin 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1902.
[Cir. 49]

Cir. 49, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Fig. 1.— Pastures Grazed Too Closely, and as a Result Fern, "Ground Hemlock,"

AND Timber have taken Possession.

Fig. 2. -An Ideal Stand of White Clover and Kentucky Bluegrass (June-Grass),

THE Result of Proper Management.

PASTURES SHOWING THE RESULTS OF IMPROPER AND PROPER USE.

IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURES IN EASTERN NEW YORK, ETC. 7

DETERIORATION MOSTLY DUE TO OVERGRAZING.

The (leteriordtion of pastures carrying dairy cattle is for the most
part (kie to too close grazing. It is a provision of nature that per-
ennial plants store up food in their roots, which is used by them when
starting a fresh growth in the early spring. If such plants are kept
grazed so closely that they are unable to store up tliis food they even-
tually become enfeebled and die. In addition, there are a number
of other conditions resulting from close grazing. First, close grazing
carried on over a jjeriod of years results in a heavy loss of humus,
which is necessary for plant growth. Also, when a pasture is grazed
closely, so that there is no plant growth to form a mulch (PI. I,
fig. 1), the evaporation is very great. Under such conditions the soil
becomes too dry for the maintenance of the native forage plants.
As the forage plants give way, drought-resisting weeds take their
places, as has happened in the pasture shown in Plate II, figure 1.
Again, dairy cattle by the production of milk take more from such a
pasture than they return. This results in a loss of plant food, which
also becomes evident after a period of years. This loss of plant food
is much less than in the case of a hay meadow from which the hay is
sold 3^ear after year, but nevertheless it is going on just the same.

METHODS OF IMPROVING PASTURES.

There are numerous areas on steep sideliills, where the soil is
naturally thin and poor and where there is much danger of damage
through erosion, that should never have been cleared of timber. If
these places have not already reverted to timber they should be
reforested as soon as possible."

The increased price of western grain will probably require the
eastern farmer to go back to the old plan of raising a considerable
part, if not all, of liis concentrates. Under such conditions the pas-
ture will play a very important part, as it does in Europe,'' in farm-
ing operations. This can be done by better systems of handhng
stock, in order to prevent too early grazing and overstocking; also
by fertilization, cultivation, reseeding, and the eradication of weeds.

As this deterioration has been going on for a long time the restora-
tion can not be accomplished in one year. Based on results obtained
in similar work elsewhere it is very probable that the improvement
can ordinarily be accompHshed in from three to five years with a
comparatively small outlay of money.

« Information relative to the reforesting of such areas can be secured by writing to
the Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

b See Bulletin 140, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, 1909.
[Clr. 49]

8 IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURES IN EASTERN NEW YORK, ETC,

THE PREVENTION OF OVERGRAZING.

A very essential point in the improvement of worn-out pastures is
the prevention of overgrazing. If a pasture is to be improved it is
absolutely necessary that the grass be given a chance to make a good
health}^ growth and that some of the plants be allowed to produce
seed. This can be done by reducing the number of stock or by
giving the cattle additional forage to supplement the pasture.

THE PREVENTION OF TOO EARLY PASTURING.

One of the most harmful practices in New York and the New
England States is that of turning the cattle on pasture too early in
the season. In a great many instances if the cattle were kept off for
an additional week or ten days the pasture would produce far more
feed during the entire season and would carry more stock. The
grass should be given a sufficient start to allow enough green-leaf
surface for the manufacture of the necessary substances utilized
in its growth. If the grass is not given this chance its growth wdll
of necessity be very slow and limited.

The turning of stock on a pasture wliile the ground is wet and
inclined to be "punchy-' is also a very bad practice, especially on a
clay soil. The continuous tramphng results in packing the soil so
hard that it is difficult for the plant roots to penetrate between the
soil particles and get the necessary plant food. This pacldng also
prevents the absorption of air and water by the soil.

FERTILIZING.

Investigations carried on during the summer of 1909 show that one
of the most essential points in pasture improvement is fertilizing.
A close inspection of eastern pastures shows them to be lacking in
humus. The best remedy for this trouble is barnyard manure. An
excellent way of building up a pasture is to haul on the field whatever
supplementary feed is given the cattle, placing it on the highest
points. This method is used with great success in the corn belt, and
also in many parts of the Southern States. If the distance from the
pasture to the dairy barns or to the fields where the supplementary
feed is grown is too great to make this method practicable, the land
can be top-dressed with manure. Much better results will be ob-
tained if a light top-dressing is used for three or four years in suc-
cession, or longer, than if a large quantity of manure is put on the
land in one season. Experiments have proved definitely that rela-
tively a much greater value is received from the manure when it is
used often and in small quantities than when a large amount is used
at one time.

tCir. 49]

IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURES IN EASTERN NEW YORK, ETC. 9

On those areas where it is impossible to take a wagon, commercial
fertilizers can be used to excellent ath'antage. Fertihzers contain-
ing principally phosphoric acid and potash would probably give the
best results. It is also probable that a small quantity of such ferti-
lizers could be used advantageously in connection with manure.

Lime should also be used, especially on the low pastures that are
not well drained. However, it should not be applied at the same
time as the manure or the commercial fertilizer. If manure or ferti-
lizer is applied in the spring the lime would probably give better
returns if put on the previous fall.

CULTIVATION. ^

Wherever a pasture is smooth enough and sufficiently free from
stones to be plowed, the best plan will be to plow the land and grow
cultivated crops on it for two or three years, or until the weeds have
been killed. It can then be seeded down and if properly handled will
soon become an excellent permanent pasture.

Under the average New England pasture conditions, plowing is
not possible. The great ma}orit3^ of pastures in this region are on side-
liills that are too steep for profitable cultivation or else are too full of
rocks to permit economic farming. Cultivation in such cases will
consist of using a disk, spring-tooth, or peg harrow, depending on
which one is best adapted to individual conditions or easiest to ob-
tain. The cultivation will consist of loosening the old sod and form-
ing a sort of mulch to prevent too great evaporation and to cover
whatever native seed there may chance to be. The harrow will also
be of great value in pulverizing the droppings and distributing them
more evenly, thus greatly increasing their value. In many instances
cultivation can be practiced only in connection with reseeding or the
use of fertilizers. \Vhere reseeding is practiced and the land is too
rocky for the use of farm implements the seed can be worked into the
ground by the use of brush harrows.

RESEEDING.

In many instances reseeding will greatly quicken the process of
restoration. If a farmer desires to reseed his pasture a mixture of
.timothy, red-top, bluegrass, and white clover will be the most prac-
tical one. The timothy will give the quickest returns, but will run
out after three or four years. It will last long enough to give the
other grasses, which require about three years, time to become
established. This seed can be broadcasted by hand, or the method
of a very successful New York farmer of always spreading a few
ounces of seed over the top of his loaded manure spreader when top-
dressing his meadows and pastures can be followed advantageously.

iClr. 49]

10 TMPROVEMEXT OF PASTURES IN EASTERN NEW YORK, ETC,

THE ERADICATION OF WEEDS.

Whenever a pasture is too rough to permit bringing it under cul-
tivation, other methods of weed eradication will be necessary. A
large percentage of the weeds can be destroyed if they are cut with a
scythe just before they go to seed and, if possible, at their period of
lowest vitality. Some of the more dangerous weeds that can not
be killed in this manner will have to be dug out with a hoe or pulled
by hand. The best cattle graziers in the Southern States find that
if they go over their pastures once or twice a year and destroy the
more dangerous weeds they have very little trouble from this cause.

SUMMARY.

(1) The pastures of eastern New York and the New England
States have deteriorated greatly.

(2) In direct contrast, beef pastures in other parts of the country
of the same age are in as good condition as originally.

(3). In the corn belt badly worn land is built up by using it as a
pasture and feeding on it.

(4) Graziers of beef cattle have learned by experience that too
early grazing is harmful.

(5) Graziers have also learned that close grazing does not pay.

(6) A study of their life history shows that plants must be allowed
sufficient green-leaf surface to manufacture plant food. If this is
not done the plants will produce very little feed and will die.

(7) Too close grazing gives opportunity for dangerous weeds to
become established.

(8) The deterioration of pastures in New York and New England is
mostly due to close grazing, because (1) this prevents perennial
plants storing the food necessary for starting in spring; (2) it results
in a heavy loss of humus; (3) it makes the ground too dry for the
maintenance of native forage plants ; and (4) it causes a considerable
loss of plant food from the soil.

(9) These conditions can be remedied by (1) the prevention of
overgrazing; (2) the prevention of too early grazing; (3) fertilizing;
(4) cultivating; (5) reseeding; and (6) the eradication of weeds.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, January 8, 1910.

[Cir. 49]

o

Issued March 5, 1910.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 50.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THREE MUCH - .MLSREPRESENTED

SORGHUMS.

BY

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

QAKDSN.

CARI.ETON R. BALL,

Agronomist in Charge of Grain-Sorghum
Investigations.

24491—10 WASHINGTON : government printing office : loio

[Cir. 50]
2

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY,

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

B. r. I.— 5-)5.

THREE MUCH-MISREPRESENTED SORGHUMS."

SHALLXJ ("CALIFORNIA WHEAT")-

The following extracts are from letters received on November 4 and
8, 1909, respectively, from a well-known seed firm. They indicate
that attempts are beino; made to sell seed of shallu, a variety of sor-
ghum, at exorbitant prices, by unwarranted claims of enormous
yields.

We inclose a sample of grain \vhich an Oklahoma man is selling under the name of
-California wheat," at 50 cents a pound. He claims it will produce from 200 to 400
bushels per acre. * * * We corresponded with him and bought a pound of the
seed to investigate. We have it over his own signature that this grain will produce
from 200 to 400 bushels per acre. lie sells the seed at 50 cents a pound, or 40 cents in
100-pound lots. Of course, the grower may be sincere in thinking that he has a
wonderful new grain, but we think the public ought to be guarded against the repeti-
tion of the Alaska wheat excitement of last year.

HISTORY OF THE VARIETY.

The writer has had this variety under experimental cultivation
since the season of 1905. It has been grown at different stations in
the Great Plains area and also at the Arlington Experimental Farm,
near Washington, D. C, under Agrostology No. 2650 and Grain
Investigations Nos. 85, 100, 125, and 165. It has also been tested by
a few of the state agricultural experiment stations, particularly
Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Kansas. Its known history in this
country may be related briefly.

a Numerous varieties of sorghums have been brought to this country during the past
hundred years for use as forage, grain, or sugar crops. Many such importations are
soon discarded frojn general cultivation a.s being inferior, unsatisfactory sorts, but
remain in limited use in scattered localities. From time to time these localized crops
arc discovered anew by persons unacquainted with their history and habits and are
brought to public notice as wonderfully desirable varieties. Sometimes they occasion
little more trouble than a burdensome correspondence on the part of those handling
such crops. In other instances they are exploited for profit by individuals whose
statements are misleading, though often made without such intention. The great need
for profitable drought-resistant crops in the dry regions of the West leads many
farmers to invest in such over-advertised seeds. This paper gives the known facts
concerning three varieties of sorghum about which much confusion of ideas exists and
eome misleading statements are being made. — B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau.
[Cir. 50] 3

4 THREE MUCH-MISEEPRESENTED SOBGHUMS.

It was imported directly from India by officers of the Louisiana
State Experiment Station, about 1890. By them it was known as
"Egyptian wheat/' and was found to be an inferior variety of sor-
ghum, as the following quotations will show.

Recently introduced; stalk small; panicle open and spreading; not equal to other

kinds given here."

Low growing, inferior kind, nonsaccharine. Has seeds in open panicle. Inferior
to yellow and white milo and kafir corn; should not be used with expectation of best

results. &

We grew it for many years at all three stations and abandoned it as inferior for
forage to other sorghums. "Egyptian wheat" was imported directly from India by
us and corresponds to your description of shallu. Our farm managers well recognize
it from your description.*;

Though discarded by the Louisiana station, small lots of the seed
had been taken from time to time by visitors. In this way the
variety was carried to other localities, principally westward into
Texas and Oklahoma. Early in 1905 it came to the writer's atten-
tion in Texas, under the name "California wheat." Through field
investigation and the aid of agricultural papers it was found growing
at scattered points in Oklahoma and Texas. Many names, mostly
somewhat misleading, have been applied to it in the past five years.
Among them are ' ' California Rice corn," " California wheat," ' ' Chicken
corn," "Chinese Golden sorghum," "Egyptian rice," "Egyptian
wheat," "Mexican wheat," and "Rice corn."

RELATIONSHIPS AND DESCRIPTION.

Shallu belongs to a group of sorghums entirely distinct from any of
the other groups grown in this country. Botanically, it belongs to
the variety roxhurgJiii Ilackel. This variety is found conunonly in
some parts of India and also in Africa, especially in the Sudan
and in central East Africa. It seems to be the leading variety
in the island of :Madagascar. Recent importations are represented
by Seed and Plant Introduction Nos. 16856 and 18192 from
German East Africa, 23422 from Natal, 23714 to 23716 from Portu-
guese East Africa, and 24339 and 24340 from the Transvaal. Other
recent numbers belong probably to this variety, but the plants have
not matured, and this fact can not be certainly determined from the

seed alone.

As found in Africa and India the group possesses the following
characters. The stems are tall and slender, 6 to 12 feet in height.
They stool freely, producing a large number of suckers. The pith is
neither juicy nor sweet, but dry. The heads or p anicles (fig. 1) are

d Bulletin 19, second series, Louisiana State Experiment Stations, 1892, p. 538.
b Bulletin 53, Louisiana State Agricultural Experiment Station, 1898, p. 12. ^
cDr. W. C. Stubbs (formerly director of the Louisiana State Experiment Stations),
in a letter to the writer, March 27, 190G.
[Cir. 50]

THKEE MUCH-MISREPRESENTED SORGHUMS. 5

large and loose, usually conical, that is, broad at the base and pointed
at the top, like those of typical Early Amber sorgo. The long and
slender branches of the head are spreading and drooping at the tips.
Tliis group, comprising the variety roxhurghii, is separated easily
from all other groups of sorghums by the shape and position of the
glumes at nuiturity. The two glumes, or hulls, are broadly lance-
olate or ovate in shape and closely surround the young seed, as in all
sorghums. As the seed ripens, liowover, tliese glumes gradually

Fig. 1.— Two heads of shallu. (One-fourUi iwiural hi/.u.)

open or spread widely apart, completely exposing the seed. At the
same time the edges of each glume begin to curl inward and become
quite involute. In different varieties the glumes vary from pale
yellow to black and the seeds from white to buff, pale red, and red-
dish brown.

Only one variety is found in this country. It grows from 5 to 8
feet high, according to elevation, soil, and moisture. It produces
from 2 to 5 suckers. The stems bear from 11 to 15 leaves of medium
size, 13 being the average number. Tlie heads are of the shape

[Cir. 50]

6 THEEE MUCH-MISREPRESENTED SORGHUMS.

described above, 8 to 15 inches long, and of a pale-yellow color. The
glumes are a pale-straw color and the oval seeds whitish to pale buff
and about the size of the kafir seed.

CROP CHARACTERS AND PROBABLE VALUE.

Strong claims are being made for shallu by some of those who are
growing it. Five ways are commonly stated in which the growers
believe it excels all other sorghums. These are (1) in drought
resistance, (2) in yields of seed to the acre, (3) in the feeding value
of the grain, (4) in the tonnage of fodder produced, and (5) in the
feeding value of this fodder. These five claims may be discussed in
their order.

(1) Drouglit resistance. — Little is known concerning the absolute
drought resistance of shallu. In just what characters drought
resistance resides is an open cjuestion. Statements as to the relative
resistance of different varieties must always take account of the
stand of plants, as well as of differences in the soil, in the fertility,
and in the water content of the plats or fields. Experiments so far
do not indicate that shallu is more drought resistant than other sor-
ghums. In unfavorable seasons it suffers in the same way and in
the same proportion, apparently, as do other grain sorghums; that
is, on many stalks the heads fail to push completely out of the boot,
or upper leaf sheath.

(2) Yields of grain. — Farmers growing this crop for the first time
• commonly estimate that their fields will yield from 75 to 100 bushels

to the acre. They are misled by the large size of the heads in com-
parison with those of milos and kafirs. The heads of shallu are,
however, loose and open and usually do not weigh as much as those
of the other grain sorghums. Besides this, the shallu heads do not
contain as high a percentage of seed in proportion to the weight of
the head as do the other grain sorghums.

The advertiser mentioned in the extracts at the beginning of this
circular claims a yield of 200 to 400 bushels to the acre. Such claims
are simply preposterous. The best of the grain-producmg sorghums
rarely exceed a yield of 50 bushels to the acre. Their average yields in
favorable seasons He somewhere between 35 and 40 bushels to the
acre. In unfavorable seasons the yields are, of course, much lower.
The average yields of milos and kafirs for all seasons in any ten-year
period are not likely to be much above 30 bushels. There is yet no
evidence that the average yields of shallu will exceed those of such
crops as the milos and kafirs.

At the experimental farms of the Office of Gram Investigations of
the Bureau of Plant Industry comparatively low yields of grain have
been secured in the experiments with shallu. In the year 1006,
which was a very favorable season for grain sorghums in the Pan-

[Cir. 50]

THEEE MUCH-MISREPRESENTED SORGHUMS. 7

handle ref!:ion of Texas, 2 plats at the Channing Experimental Farm
yielded at the rate of 19^ bushels to the acre. On the same farm
milo yielded as high as 46 bushels, Blackhull kafir 35, and Red kafir
47. In 1906 the yield of shallu .at the Amarillo Experimental Farm,
from seed grown in that vicinity, was only 25.2 bushels. At the
same time Blackhull kafir yielded from 43 to 54 bushels and a plat of
Red kafir, 45.9. Most of the milo was destroyed by hail. In the
years succeeding 1906, shallu has never done quite as well in compari-
son with the other grain sorghums as it did in that year.

A considerable correspondence with farmers wdio are raising this
crop has brought to light only one high yield in which actual w^eighing
or measuring of the thrashed grain is claimed. This yield is said to
have been 60 bushels to the acre, figured at 56 pounds to the bushel.
It was secured in the favorable season of 1908, in the southern part
of the Plains region, where the season is comparatively long and the
elevation less than 2,000 feet.

(3) Feeding value of the grain. — No experiments in feeding shallu
grain have been made by any of the state agricultural experiment
stations, so far as known. Other grain sorghums are known to have
a feeding value about 90 per cent as great as that of corn. It is with
them that shallu must be compared. The chemical analysis of shallu
does not indicate a different composition in any particular. One
grower has published the statement that as a feed for milch cows he
finds shallu superior to cottonseed in the production of milk and
butter. This opinion is no doubt honestly entertained, but such a
general statement is likely to lead many to believe that the starchy
grain sorghums, rich in carbohydrates, can be used as feeding sub-
stitutes for bran, cottonseed, and other products rich in protein.
This, of course, is not the case.

(4) Yields of forage. °- — From the forage standpoint shallu does not
make any better showing. At the Channing farm in 1906, the 2
grain plats yielded an average of 3>227 pounds of forage to the acre,
including the w^eight of the seed. On the same farm, the 12 grain
plats of milo averaged about 4,800 pounds of forage, the 5 plats of
Blackhull kafir about 6,300 pounds, while 1 plat of Red kafir yielded
7,800 pounds to the acre. On the Amarillo Experimental Farm in
the same season, the grain plat of shallu yielded at the rate of 7,100
pounds of fodder to the acre, including the seed. In comparison, 6
grain plats of milo averaged 9,000 pounds of fodder to the acre, and
17 grain plats of Blackhull kafir and 6 grain plats of Red kafir aver-
aged over 10,000 pounds each to the acre. In the plats grown

a The forage plats of sorghums on the Amarillo Experimental Farm were maintained
by the Office of Forage-Plant Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Mr.
C. V. Piper, agrostologifst in charge, agrees in the conclusions drawn regarding the
forage value of shallu, and the figures presented in this connection.
ICir. 50]

8 THREE MUCH-MISKEPEESENTED SORGHUMS.

especially for forage, Blackliull kafir averaged over 12,000 pounds,
Red kafir over 13,000 pounds, and the two best sorgos,^ or sweet
sorghums, over 15,000 and 17,000 pounds to the acre, respectively.

(5) Value of the forage. ^There is also no reason for believing that
the quahty of the forage is better than that produced by kafirs and
sorgos. The stems are dry and pithy, like those of corn, milos, and
the kowliangs. The kafirs have somewhat juicy stems, while the
sorgos are both juicy and sweet. The average number of leaves to
the stalk is very close to 13, which is slightly lower than the average
for kafirs and all sorgo varieties except the Amber group. These
facts concerning the dry stalks, the ordinary number of leaves, and
the comparatively low tonnage of forage do not indicate a variety of
high forage value, either in quantity or quality.

OBJECTIONABLE CHARACTERS IN SHALLU.

While growing shallu on a small scale in 1905 and more exten-
sively in 1906, some serious faults were found in it. The four most
prominent of these are stooling, lodging, retaining the base of the head
in the boot, and shattering. Experiments with shallu in recent years
have been largely directed toward getting rid of these undesirable
characters.

Stooling, or producing suckers at the base of the main stalk, is not
desirable in grain sorghum, however it may be regarded in forage
varieties or in small grains generally. The heads borne on suckers
are always later in maturing than those on the main stalk. More-
over the suckers are not usually of the same height as the main stalks.
This lack of uniformity in ripening and in height causes difiiculty in
harvesting the grain, especially with any type of header. While a
smaller quantity of seed may be required in sowing a freely stooling
variety, so little seed is used for any of the grain sorghums that this
small saving is not worth considering.

Its habit of lodging is one of the most serious objections to shallu.
Just at the time when the heads are heavy with the green seeds the
stalks begin to lodge. In the writer's experiments it has happened
more than once that by the time one-tenth of the heads were ripe
fully one-fourth of the stalks were down in a hopeless tangle.

The failure of the heads to come completely out of the boot is often
a serious matter to the grain grower. On a considerable proportion
of the stalks the base of tlie head remains inclosed by the sheath, even
in favorable seasons. No seed is producetl on this included portion,
and the yield is reduced to that extent. This basal part of the head
also becomes infested with plant lice and worms and usually becomes

a Sorgo i.s the name which has been adopted for the group called variously sweet,
saccharine, or sirup sorghums, and commonly, but erroneously, "sugar cane."
[Cir. 50]

THREE MUCH-MISREPRESENTED SORGHUMS. 9

moldy ami rotten. At thrashing tune this moldy material is scat-
tered through the good seed and causes further loss.

There has also been trouble with the shattering of the seed. This
results especially where the crop is allowed to stand in the field until
past fully ripe. It also occurs where the crop is cut when ri])e and
allowed to remain in the shock through the fall. When these shocks
are taken uj) for thrashing or fee(Hng, the seed shatters very readily
and much is lost in spite of careful handling.

CONCLUSION.

It is not claimed that shulki is without value for the sorghum-
growing regions. Its alleged superiority to other well-known and
quite satisfactory varieties has not been proved, however. On the
contrary, there is strong evidence that it is somewhat inferior to
milos and kafirs. In any case it should be tried only on a small scale
at first. For grain production a seeding of 2 to 4 pounds to the acre
will be quite sufficient, the quantity varying with the soil, elevation,
and latitude. There is no reason whatever for paying an exorbitant
price for the seed in either large or small quantities.

The following statement by Prof. A. M. Ten Eyck, of the Kansas
Agricultural Experiment Station, published recently in the Kansas
Farmer, is to the point :

The tests of the crop at this station indicate that it is not so valuable as sorghum
or kafir com either for fodder or for seed. The yields of the grain have been less than
the yields of kafir corn, and the crop is objectionable because the stems are usually
very slender and the crop lodges badly and is hard to harvest. In my judgment seeds-
men are selling it at a high price simply because it is a novelty or not well known.

SUMMARY.

Shallu is a variety of sorghum first introduced about 1890 by the
Louisiana State Experiment Station, and soon discarded.

It has lately reappeared under such misleading names as "Cali-
fornia wheat," " Eg3"ptian wheat," and several others.

Shallu l)eIongs to a group of sorghums quite distinct from the other
groups grown in this country.

It is easily distinguished by the loose conical panicle with slender,
drooping branches and the lanceolate glumes which spread wide apart
and become inrolled at maturity, completely exposing the oval seed.

Shallu is claimed by some to be superior to all other sorghums in
drought resistance, yield and value of the grain, and tonnage and
(piality of the forage. These statements are misleading.

It is now l)eing advertised and sold at exorbitant prices as a drought-
resistant variety capable of yielding 200 to 400 bushels of grain to the
acre. Such claims are absurd.

ICir. .50]

10 THREE MUCH-MISREPRESENTED SORGHUMS.

Experiments conducted by the writer and by the Office of Forage-
Crop Investigations, as well as the observations of numerous farmers,
indicate that shallu is rather inferior to milo and kafir varieties as a
grain crop and to kafirs and sorgos as a forage crop.

Those who purpose growing it are advised to do so on a small scale
and not to pay exorbitant prices for the seed.

All farmers who test shallu in the season of 1910 are reciuested to
report their results to the waiter of this paper. Report sheets and
envelopes for this purpose will be furnished to all who reciuest them.

"CHOCOLATE CORN.''

In October, 1905, the brief letter reprinted below was published
in one of the daily papers of the eastern United States.

In your department "H. H. " asks for information concerning what she or he calls
"chocolate corn. " Quite a number of years ago Isaac Newton, first Commissioner of
Agriculture under James Buchanan, sent my father a pint of chocolate corn, requesting
him to plant it and report the results to the Department. It resembled broom corn very
closely — only darker and ranker. In color it was a dark brown. I suppose the crop
of seed, which was thrashed out with a flail on the barn floor, was twenty times greater
than broom corn; I think the crop yielded fully 200 barrels to the acre. Everything
to which it was fed ate ravenously, gaining in flesh rapidly. For fattening purposes
I never saw its equal.

Horses and cattle would eat every particle of the stalk after it had been thrashed.
The stalk grew to a great height.

I remember we ground some of it in the coffee mill and used it as a beverage at the
table. It was fairly good, but not as clear as the prepared chocolate which comes in
cakes.

I never heard it called "chocolate corn, " nor did it resemble popcorn in the least.
There was no ear or husk — just the seed growing on the tassel, which was literally
covered .

I think it can be obtained at the Agricultural Department in Washington. It is a

wonder that poultry raisers do not cultivate it. I presume its value as an article of

diet for all kinds of poultry can not be equaled.

— — M. D.

Some of the statements made in this letter naturally attracted
attention in many c[uarters. This was especially true of those state-
ments concerning the yield of the grain, its feeding value, its use as a
beverage, and the source of the seed. It scarcely need be said that
the estimates of the yield and feeding value are greatly exaggerated.

The letter just c^uoted was rather widely copied by newspapers and
periodicals of all classes. The result was a flood of letters directed to
the Department of Agriculture, asking for seed and information. All
such incjuirers were answ^ered and given the known facts. Apparently
the same letter has been republished recently, and the matter of
"chocolate corn" is being agitated anew. The following statement
has therefore been prepared for the information of those interested:

(1) The Department of Agriculture has for distribution no seed of
any plant called "chocolate corn. "

[Cir. 50]

THREE MUCH-MISKEPRESENTED SORGHUMS. 11

(2) Tlie plant once known juul used under that name was some one
of the many varieties of sorghum.

(3) From the brief descriptions given by different writers it is cer-
tain tliat the variety w^as very simihir to the Early Amber sorgo « of
to-day.

The writer of the letter quoted does not say under what name the
seed was sent to his father. He does state, however, that he never
heardit called "chocolate corn. " So far as recorded, the only sorghum
seed distributed by the United States Patent Office during President
Buchanan's administration was that of the Chinese sorgo. This was
sent to a very few selected persons in 1855, and 175 bushels of mostly
home-grown seed were distributed in 1857. It was undoubtedly this
Chinese sorgo wdiich the correspondent recalls. The description
quoted talhes very well, as far as it goes, with the Chinese sorgo.
It was very similar to our Early Amber sorgo. In fact, the Amber
sorgo varieties are supposed by many to have been derived by selection
from the Chinese sorgo.

It is interesting to know, however, that a sorghum variety called
"chocolate corn," and used as a beverage, was knowTi at a much
earlier date. The following quotation from a paper '' on Sorghum
saccTiaratum, or Chinese sorgo, written in 1857, is sufficient to indicate
the use of such a variety about 1830:

It is by some supposed to have been cultivated to a limited extent in western
Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio, and perhaps in other localities, twenty-five or thirty
years since, for the seed or grain, which was then used, in some instances, as an
article of food by farmers who experimented in its cultivation. There were at
the time mentioned two varieties cultivated, one having black panicles under the
name "chocolate,''' and the other, having white panicles, was called "rice." The
"chocolate" or black variety was prepared for use by browning the seeds, still con-
tained in the panicles, in the manner of coffee, and then making a coffee, which, with
the addition of cream and sugar, resembled chocolate in appearance and somewhat
also in taste, and was quite palatable.

Since the Cliinese sorgo was not known to Europe until 1851, and
to this countrv until 1853, it could not have been the "chocolate
corn" of 1830. But a black-panicled variety was introduced to
Europe in the first century A. D., and was known to many European
herbaUsts of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It was gro\\-ii
and described in Italy by Arduino in 1786. That it was imported to
the United States is the natural conclusion. Johnson grass was
brought from the Mediterranean region about 1830.

Most descriptions refer to this sorghum and to the Cliinese sorgo
as havinij black seeds. No sorghums having black seeds are known.

a Sorgo is the name adopted for the sweet or saccharine group of sorghums, often
erroneously called "sugar cane. "

ft John H. Klippart, corresponding secretary, Ohio State Board of Agriculture.
Report, 1857, p. 409.
[Cir. 50]

12 THKEE MUCH-MISREPKESENTED SORGHUMS.

The Chinese sorgo and the Early and Minnesota Ambers have shining
black glumes, which closely surround the reddish-brown seed and
often remain attached after thrashing. In such cases the spikelet is
often described instead of the seed.

Nothing is known of the nutritive value of the seeds of this and
other sorghums in the preparation of household substitutes for coffee,
chocolate, etc. Some of the grain sorghums may be found to have
value as the basis of new cereal drinks comparable to those now
made from wheat preparations. Tannin is present in larger or smaller
quantities in the seed coats of all the brown and reddish-brown seeds.
There are, however, white-seeded varieties of kafir, kowliang, and
milo.

SUMMARY.

Attention has been recently called to a crop under the name of
"chocolate corn" by a widely copied newspaper paragraph.

The statements regarding its high yields of grain, its use as a sub-
stitute for chocolate, and the possibility of securing seed from this
Department have caused a great deal of correspondence.

The Department has no seed of any crop known as ''chocolate
corn" for distribution. The plant mentioned was a sorghum variety.

Some variety of sorghum was cultivated in this country under the
name of ''chocolate corn" as early as about 1830 and, sparingly, for
some time thereafter. It was probably similar to Amber sorgo.

The value of the seeds of the various sorghums in the preparation
of a beverage is not known. It may be possible to use them for this
purpose, as other grains are used in preparing cereal drinks.

GOOSENECK SORGO ("TEXAS SEEDED RIBBON CANE").

There exists among farmers and seedsmen at the present time a
great deal of confusion concerning the plant known as Gooseneck
sorgo, and also passing under other names. The trouble has been
largely caused by the use of the name "Seeded Ribbon cane" for a
sorghum. A brief statement of facts gathered during the past five
years may serve to make the matter clear.

In order to understand how the use of this name has caused trouble,
the following prehminary facts must be kept in mind: (1) The true
sugar cane (Saccliarum officinarum) is commonly known as "Ribbon
cane" in the Gulf States where it is grown. (2) It does not produce
seed in this country, and fields are always started by planting the
stalks, wliich is a comparatively laborious and expensive process.
(3) Sugar planters would eagerly welcome a true sugar cane which
could be grown from seed. (4) Sugar cane recpiires a subtropical
chmate, and therefore can not be grown very far from the Gulf States.

[Cir. 50]

THREE MUCH-MISREPRESENTED SORGHUMS.

13

Beginning? about six years ago, a plant was much advertised and
its seeds widely sold at high prices under the name of "Texas Seeded
Kibbon cane." It was claimed to be a form of true sugar cane wdiich
not only produced seed, but could be grown true from seed, thus doing
away with the labor of preserving and planting the stalks.

It was said to grow successfully as far north as northern Oklahoma
and Arkansas. It was further claimed that the United States De-
])artment of Agriculture had pronounced it a true sugar cane. This
last statement was, of course, promptly
denied.

Brief investigation showed that the
plant was a sorghum and the first sea-
son's trials identified it as the Goose-
neck sorgo (fig. 2). This was probably
one of the African imphees obtained in
Natal by Leonard Wray in 1851 and
introduced to Europe in 1854 and to
the United States in 1857. It was a
well-known variety during the days
wdien sorgos were grown for sugar pur-
poses, but had largely disappeared from
cultivation after those experiments
were discontinued."

As soon as these facts were learned
a brief statement was given to the agri-
cultural press and a great many in-
quirers informed by letter. In the
mean time, many farmers wdio had pur-
chased and planted seed recognized the
crop as the old Gooseneck sorgo. They
reported their belief both to this De-
partment and to their agricultural
papers. However, the sale of seed as
tliut of a true sugar cane was continued
under the impetus of skillful advertis-
ing. The warnings of the farmers first humbugged seemed with-
out effect.

At the close of the second season a new complication appeared.
Many farmers reported that their crop, while clearly a sorghum, was
not the Gooseneck variety but some other. An examination of many
samples submitted for identification showed that Sumac, Orange, and
Planter sorgos, all varieties with erect heads, were being grown under
the name of "Seeded Ribbon cane."

Fig. 2.

-A head of Gooseneck sorgo,
third natural size. )

(Oue-

a At the present time it is known to be of great value as a sirup and fodder crop for
the Southern States.
[Cir. 50]

14 THEEE MUCH-MISEEPEESENTED SOEGHUMS.

From these facts it was a natural inference that, when their available
supply of the seed of Gooseneck sorgo was exhausted, growers and
dealers had substituted the seed of these other sorgo varieties rather
than lose sales at very profitable prices. When attention was called
to these facts the buying public was assured by some of the growers
and dealers that there were two strains of "Seeded Ribbon cane,"
one "Gooseneck" and the other "Straightneck," and the substitution
was continued. Recently a fourth variety, having erect heads, has
been offered by a grower as "Straightneck Seeded Ribbon cane."
This time it is the Sapling sorgo, once well kno\Yn under the name
"Link's Hybrid."

It is gratifying to note that the leading seed firms handling sorghum
seeds in the Southwest, while still using the name "Seeded Ribbon
cane," use also the correct name, "Gooseneck sorgo," as an additional
title in describing this crop. This is helping much to clear up the
matter in the mind of the public. It will be still better when the
misleading name "Seeded Ribbon cane" is 'dropped entirely and this
variety sold under its true name, "Gooseneck sorgo," alone. It is
to be hoped also that the advertising and sale of other old and well-
known sorgo varieties, as "Straightneck Seeded Ribbon cane," will
be stopped.

SUMMARY.

True sugar cane {Saccharum qfficinarum) is commonly known as
"Ribbon cane." In the past few years a variety of sorgo has been
widely advertised and sold as "Texas Seeded Ribbon cane."

It was at first claimed that this was a true sugar cane (Ribbon
cane) which could be grown from seed and cultivated much farther
north than other forms of sugar cane.

Investigation showed that the plant was the once well-known
Gooseneck sorgo, a true sorghum, and this fact was made known by
publication and tln-ough correspondence.

The seed continued, however, to be advertised and widely sold at
high prices, and when the supply ran short seeds of other sorgo varie-
ties, having erect heads, were substituted for the Gooseneck sorgo.

Compltiining growers were then assured that there were two strains
of "Seeded Ribbon cane," one "Gooseneck" and the other " Straight-
neck." The sorgo varieties thus sold were Sumac, Orange, and
Planter. Recently a fourth. Sapling sorgo, has been offered by a
grower as "Straightneck Seeded Ribbon cane."

During the past two years leading seed firms in the Southwest have
been explaining that the plant offered as "Seeded Ribbon cane" is
Gooseneck sorgo.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, January 8, 1910.

[Cir. 50] Q

BTIREAI OF PLANT INDl STRY.

Ch!(f of Bureau, B-EVERhY T. Galloway.
A.sxhtant Cliirf of Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor,!. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, 3 AMES E. Jone.s.

[Cir. 51]
2

B. P. I— 546.

FKllT GROWING FOR HOME USE IN THE CENTRAL
AND SOUTHERN GREAT I'EAINS."

LOCATION OF THE REGION UNDER DISCUSSION.

The geographical position of tlie Great Plains is indicated by the
map shown in figure 1. This map was first used in the Yearbook of
the Department of Agriculture for 1907 in connection witli an article
by Prof. E. C. Chilcott, of this Bureau, entitled "Dry-Land Farming
in the Great Plains Area". The eastern boundary of the Great Plains
from an agricultural standpoint is considered somewhat arbitrarily
to be the ninety-eighth meridian. The western boundary is likewise
assumed to be the 5,000-foot contour. It extends south as far as the
thirty-second parallel of latitude and north to the Canadian line.

For the purposes of the present discussion, western Kansas and
eastern Colorado comprise the section referred to as the central Great
Plains; western Oklahoma, the Panhandle of Texas, and eastern New
Mexico constitute the southern portion.

In this connection it should be stated that between the 5,000-foot
contour and the Rocky Mountains there are points which have an ele-
vation exceeding 5,000 feet, where fruit is grown with some success
witliout irrigation. In fact, two of the most successful nonirrigated
orchards in eastern Colorado are considerably above this elevation.
One of these is near Littleton, with an elevation of about 5,350 feet;
the other, near Parker, with an altitude of neaily 6,000 feet.

a In the rapid settlement of the semiarid region, the matter of home building is a
very important feature of the development that is in progress. A good supply of fruit
may be made to contribute very materially to this end and add greatly to the well-
being of the family. During the summer of 1909 a considerable number of representa-
tive fruit gardens and urchards in eastern Colorado, weslern Kansas, and the Panhandle
(if Texas were visited by Mr. II. P. Gould, Pomologist in Charge of Fruit District Inves-
tigations, for the purpose of studying conditions, varieties, methods, etc., and with a
view to making the information thus obtained available for the benefit of the large
number of new settlers who are ra])idly coming to these sections to make hom.es.
This paper is largely an account of the methods that appear to be best suited to the
climatic and other conditions in this region and which thus far have given promising
results, supplemented by such suggestions as the investigations of the writer have
called forth. — A. F. Woods, Acting Chief of Bureau.

[Cir. 51] 3

4 FRUIT GEOWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS.

THE PRESENT STATUS OF FRUIT GROWING.

Comparatively little attention has been given to fruit growing in
the Great Plains area, except at a few points where water is available
for irrigation, yet in the aggregate there are many ranchers who have
started a small orchard or fruit garden. The product from these

Fig. l.-Map showing the geographical position of the Great Plains area and the annual and

seasonal rainfall.

fills an important place in the economy of the household and in the
pleasures of the family. In some sections, notably in certain por-
tions of the Panhandle of Texas, a considerable proportion of the
farm homes have small orchards adjacent to them. Grapevines and

[Cir. 51]

FRUIT GROWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS. 5

some of the small fruits are also frequently found. The orchard
fruits comprise principally apples, cherries, and native plums.
Peaches are quite common in some sections, while occasionally pears
and apricots are seen.

In a few instances fruit plantations of commercial size have been
developed entirely without irrigation, 10 to 20 acres — in a very few
cases more — being devoted by a single individual to fruit growing.
But such plantations are exceptional. Where they do exist they
have been developed gradually with the increasing experience of the
owner.

The fruit from commercial orchards in this region, and from the
home fruit gardens whenever there is a surplus, always sells very read-
ily, bu3^ers sometimes driving 40 and 50 niiles across the plains to
obtain it.

The possibility of growing fruit at many points in the central and
southern Great Plains may be said, within certain limits at least, to
have been demonstrated. In the majority of the orchards and fruit
gardens investigated the results have justified the efforts that have
been niade. In numerous widely separated cases very satisfactory
returns have been secured. In many sections a complete crop failure
is rare.

Not all of the efforts to grow fruit, however, have been successful.
]Many things have contributed to failure. The one ever-present diffi-
culty where only the natural rainfall is available is lack of moisture.
Yet after the trees are well established it is not often that tins causes
more than temporary losses, as a crop of fruit for a single season.
In some- sections hail is frequent and occasionally causes great dam-
age not only to the fruit but to the trees. Many regard it as the most
serious factor that has to be considered. Late spring frosts are also
a cause of much injury. But with all the difficulties, rarely is the
effort to grow fruit one to be regretted. Those who have been suc-
cessful i)rize beyond any commensurate monetary value the product
of their trees and bushes.

THE OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE,

The vast majority of settlers on the Great Plains must depend upon
their own plantations for a supply of fruit for home use. Most of
those who do not have home-grown fruit are obliged to do without it.
The chief interest, therefore, in the cultivation of fruit in this region
centers about the home and the production of enough to meet the
needs or desires of each family.

Here and there, as above stated, there are fruit j)lantations of com-
mercial size. Doubtless others will be developed in the future. But

[Cir. 51]

6 FRUIT GROWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS.

such plantations will be located as are those now in existence (1) on
especially favorable sites where more or less water is available for
irrigation" in times of extreme drought and where hailstorms and
late spring frosts occur but rarely, or (2) they will be owned by men
with sufficient capital to enable them to resort to unusual and rela-
tively expensive methods of tiding the trees over such crises, or
(3) they will be developed gradually by the extension of small home
orchards as the owners gain experience and the conviction that their
location and personal qualifications warrant it.

The matter of reasonably successful fruit culture in this region, at
least for home use, resolves itself largely into two questions: (1)
The selection of varieties adapted to the conditions, and (2) the appli-
cation of suitable methods of orchard maintenance. The primary
object of this paper is to discuss some of the factors that contribute
to these ends.

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.

The rainfall and temperature conditions are the most important
climatic factors in connection with fruit growing. The seasonal and
annual precipitation in the Great Plains are shown by the broken
lines in figure 1. Hailstorms are serious in some sections and some-
times cause much damage to fruit and fruit trees.

Of the temperature conditions that characterize the region under
discussion, late spring frosts are perhaps the most serious feature.
Injury to the fruit blossoms is rather frequent from this cause.

The data collected in table 1, on page 7, will give the reader a
general conception of prevailing conditions as to precipitation and
range of temperature in this region:

« In Bulletin 130 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, which is composed of papers pre-
sented at the second annual meeting of "The Cooperative Experiment Association of
the Great Plains Area," held at Manhattan, Kans., June 26-27, 1907, there occurs
one by Mr. J. E. Payne, superintendent of the substation of this Department at Akron,
Colo . , entitled ' ' Fruit Growing on the Plains . ' ' This article gives a general account of
fruit culture in this region and discusses, among other matters, several different meth-
ods of collecting and storing water for use on small areas of land . A number of diagrams
are used which aid very materially in giving clearness to the discussion. These meth-
ods are applicable in many locations in the region included in the present discussion.
The reader is referred to the bulletin mentioned for information relative to them.
[Cir. 51]

FEUIT GROWING FOR HOME USE TN THE GREAT PLAINS.

Table I. — Records of temperature, frost, and precipitation at several points in the central

and southern Great Plains.

Eleva-
tion.

Temperature.

Locality.

Mean.

.\bsolute
maxi-
mum

(August,
1902).

Absolute
mini-
miun

(February
1899).

Days

with
maxi-
mum
above
90° F.

Days
with

Annual.

Maxi-
mum.

Mini-
mum.

mini-
mum
below
32° F.

Garden City, Kans

Feet.

2, 836

4,997

4,663

5,700

3,658

°P.
54
47
52
50
56

'F.
70
62
66
68
68

"F.
39
31
37
33
44

°F.
112
100
1(H
103

bl05

"F.
-32
-38
-27

0-29
-16

63
19
42
29
36

144

Fort t'ottins, Colo

179

148

Iloehne, Colo

169

\niarillo. Tex . . . .

111

Frost.

Ivocality.

Garden City, Kans
Fort Collins, Colo..

Pueblo. Colo

Hoehne, Colo

Amarillo, Tex

First kill-
ing in
autumn
(average).

Oct. 4
Sept. 21
Oct. 15
Oct. 2
Nov. 7

Last in i Earliest

spring ; killing in

(average). i autumn.

Mav 2

May 13

Apr. 28

May 10

Apr. 12

Sept. 7
...do....
Sept. 12
Sept. 13
Oct. 16

Latest
in spring.

Precipi-
tation,
annual.

May
June
May
July
May

Inches.
19.6
14.6
n.6
13.0
21.9

a January, 1901.

'' June, 1902.

SITES FOR FRUIT PLANTATIONS.

In the central and southern Cireat Phiins the sites for orchards and
Other fruit-producing plants should he selected as a rule with refer-
ence to the best supply of soil moisture. On some of the ranches,
especially the smaller ones, there is little or no clioice, as the conditions
are so nearly uniform. Convenience of location in such cases will
probably be the ruling factor.

In many instances, however, the soil conditions with regard to
moisture can be taken into account. Streams of considerable size
pass through some of the ranches. The bottt)ni land adjacent to
such streams frequently has an underflow which can l)e reached by
the roots of fruit trees. Under such conditions trees often make a
remarkable growth.

The water from small streams, even if they are dry a considerable
portion of the time, can often be utilized to good advantage for fruit
growing if the })lantations are located with reference to such sources
of supply. On many ranches that are not traversed by streams of
any description there is still some choice of site. Wherever a slight
elevation or slope occurs from which tiiere is surface drainage during
showers or more protracted rains, the area which receives the lun-oflF,
other things being equal, is a relatively favorable site for fruit growing.
This is because of the additional quantity of water that it receives.

[Cir. .^.1]

8 FRUIT GEOWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS.

By taking advantage of such conditions as these with regard to
sites it is often possible to make results reasonably certain where
otherwise there would be much risk.

PREPARING THE LAND FOR PLANTING.

Generally speaking, the primary aim should be to so manage the
soil that it will contain the greatest quantity of moisture possible
when the trees and other plants are set out. This is for the purpose
of insuring a sufhcient supply to enable them to start into vigorous
growth at once.

So far as possible, the preparation of the land for planting fruits
should be begun two years before they are to be set out. A course
suggested in the present connection by one of much experience in the
Great Plains is as follows :

The first step should be to thoroughly prepare the land for a crop
of corn, potatoes, beans, or some other cultivated crop. Sorghum,
however, should not be used in this connection, as it is likely to take
too much moisture from the soil.

This preparation should consist of deep plowing; that is, to a
depth of 8 to 10 inches. Then thorough cultivation should be given
before planting the crop, followed by frequent and thorough tillage
throughout the season. This treatment under fairly favorable con-
ditions should result in a good crop, and will also aid in keeping the
soil in that condition which best permits deep plowing in late summer
or early fall. During the next season the land should be thoroughly
summer fallowed to conserve in the soil to the fullest extent possible
the rain that falls during the warm season. This treatment consists
of disking or harrowing every few days. By this means vegetation
of all kinds will be kept down and a good surface mulch maintained.

If the soil is heavy or becomes very compact below the surface
mulch during the summer fallowing, it should be plowed again in the
fall before the planting, which should be done in the spring.

A practice that has given good success at the time of this plowing,
or during the fall if late plowing is omitted, is to lay the ground off in
narrow lands so that there will be a dead furrow where each row of
trees is to stand. These furrows serve to hold rain that might other-
wise be lost. It is a good plan, after these dead furrows have been
made, to open them still deeper by plowing as deeply as possible. The
soil should then be harrowed thoroughly and compacted.

To sum up the foregoing suggestions, the best preparation of the
soil for fruit trees consists —

FIRST SEASON.

(1) In thorough preparation for a cultivated crop, such as corn and potatoes.

(2) In thorough cultivation of the crop throughout the season.

(3) In deep fall plowing after the crop is harvested.
[Cir. 51]

FKUIT GROWING FOR IFOME USE IN THE GKEAT PLAINS. 9

SECOND SEASON.

(1) 111 thorough summer fallowing.

(2) In plowing 8 In 10 inches deoj) in llic fall before planting the trees, unless this
haa been done for a ])revious crop.

(3) In opening furrows as deep as can be done with a plow where the rows of trees
are to stand. This should be done in the fall and the trees planted the next spring.

In addition to oi)eninf;j a dead furrow w^here the rows of trees are to
stand, one very successful grower in this region during tlie fall digs
the holes where i\\c trees ai'c to l)e ])lanted, making them large and
deep. The furrows and holes catch any run-off that may occur (hn-
ing rains, and in the winter, where there is a considerable fall of snow,
they fill up with snow when it drifts over the ground. As it melts in
the spring or on warm days in winter additional moisture is collected
where it is most needed and soaks into the ground deeper than it
otherwise would.

Under ordinary climatic conditions this method of preparing the
land should result in its being well supplied with moisture. Under
these conditions the trees should start into growth readily and make
a good development of roots.

NURSERY STOCK.

Only nursery stock of good grade and (juality should be used in this
region. In fact, it is usually poor economy to plant poor stock
under any conditions. It is difficult, however, to indicate just what
nursery stock of "good grade and quality " is without entering into a
more extended discussion of the matter than the limits of this paper
permit.

Many factors need consideration in this connection. Varieties
differ in habit of growth in the nursery as well as when they reach
mature age. For instance, some varieties of the apple are weak
growers, while others are relatively vigorous. Hence a large tree of
a particular variety and age might represent in size a small tree of
some other sort of the same age. Some varieties are drooping,
scraggly growers; others make an upright growth. The conditions
under which the stock is grown as to soil, moisture, etc., and the
standards of different nurserymen are all factors which enter into
the matter. It may be said in general, however, that nursery stock
should be free from injurious diseases and insect pests, well rooted,
and well grown in every way. In many cases undoubtedly much
responsibility with regard to the suitability of the stock secured must
rest with the nurseryman who supplies it.

Aside from the general healthfulnessof the stock, perhaps no other

factor is of so great importance as that it be well rooted. If planted

in a section where theie is usually an abundance of moistui'e and

where other climatic conditions are favorable, poorly rooted stock

23902— Cir. 51—10 2

10 FRUIT GKOWING FOE HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS.

may have some ])ossibility of overcoming and outgrowing defects
incident to a poor root system. Under the semiarid conditions of the
Great Plains, however, the risk is too great to warrant the planting
of such stock.

The age at which nursery stock is planted varies more or less with
different growers; it also depends upon the kind of fruit. In the case
of apples, pears, plums, and cherries, two-year-old trees are generally
used. These are trees that have grown in the nursery for two sea-
sons after being budded or root grafted. One-year-old peaches and
apricots are usually preferred. One-year grape roots are frequently
used, but more commonly two-year roots are planted. Either one or
two year old plants of currants and gooseberries are used. Most
of the small-fruit stock, however, is suitable for planting after one
season's growth in the nursery.

It is a question whether good-sized one-year-old trees of all the
above kinds of orchard fruits are not fully as satisfactory for planting
in this region as older trees. This view is probably not in accord
with the prevailing opinion and usual practice. It is, however, sup-
ported by the opinion of a considerable number of experienced
growers in this region. The writer is convinced that in many cases
the vounger trees can be planted with a good degree of success. The
results obtained at the dry-land fruit garden maintained at the depart-
mental substation at Akron, Colo., likewise point in this direction.

There is considerable interest in this country at the present time
in regard to dwarf apples. These are trees propagated on Paradise
or Doucin stocks, which has the effect of greatly dwarfing the growth
of the trees. Quite a number of these trees have been planted as an
experiment at Akron, Colo., in the dry-land fruit garden just men-
tioned. No conclusions, however, are warranted at this time.

PLANTING THE TREES.

If the nursery stock is not to be planted within a very few days
after it is received, it should be unpacked and "heeled in." To do"
this make a deep furrow and place the roots of the trees or other plants
in it, with the tops, in the case of trees, nearly horizontal. Pack
moist soil about the roots so as to keep them from becoming dry.
Liight watering may be necessary occasionally to maintain the soil
in a sufficiently moist condition. In some cases the tops may need
protection. If the branches become dry and the bark begins to
shrivel in the least, soil should be thrown over the entire trees or
some other means of protection provided. With these precautions
stock may be held in good condition for some time if necessary.

When the stock is handled for planting, the roots should still be so
protected that they will not become dry. This may be done by cover-
ing them with wet gunny sacks or some other suitable material. It

[Cir. 51]

FEUIT GROWING FOR HOME TSE TN THE GREAT PLAINS. 11

is a good i)riicticc to "piuldlr" the roots before planting. This con-
sists in 'dipping them in rather thin mud, which gives the roots a
moist covering of soil. This furnishes considerable protection if they
nw not exposed too long.

Spring planting is advised, as the winter conditions wo\dd doubt-
less be veiy hard on stock ])lante(l in the fall.

In general, the advice about trimming ofl" injured roots, cutting
back the toj), etc., usually given for planting trees and other plants
in humid sections, ai)plies in this region, l.ow-headed trees are
undoubtedly to be desired; that is, trees the toi)s of which are formed
not more tlian 15 inches to 2 feet from the ground. To produce such
trees a more severe heading back when the trees are set out may be
necessary than many ])ersons with experience elsewhere are accus-
tomed to give. It will not be dilhcult to develop trees with low
heads, however, if one-year-old trees are ])lanted. This is an addi-
tional' advantage in planting trees of this age. The heads of older
trees are formed when received fi'om the nursery and they may not
meet the wishes of the planter in this respect.

In starting the head of a tree, four to six main branches should
usually be allowed to remain. Or, if desired, a single '' leader" may
be left in the center of the tree and the head formed by a considerable
number of comparatively small branches radiating from it.

Reference has already been made to digging the holes in which
to set the trees. If they have been made large and deep, as previously
mentioned, they may need to be partially fdled before the trees are
placed in them to avoid too deep planting. In filling in the soil about
the roots, the usual precautions need to be observed in regard to
packing the soil firmly. If it is not sufhciently moist to insure the
prompt starting of the tree into growth, enough water should be
poured into the hole after it has been })artially filled with soil to
thoroughly wet the portion in close proximity to the roots. The
hole is then filled, though many leave the surface about the tree a
little lower than the general level in order to retain in the little
"basin" thus nuule the rain which might otherwise drain away.
Such a practice is of particular value during heavy showers when
there is considerable run-off, more water being retained about the
tree than would be the case if the surface was perfectly level.

While many trees are planted only two or three inches deeper than
they were in the nursery, as in other regions, many advise setting
them at least six inches deeper than they stood in the nursery. This
places the roots where they are less. influenced by surface conditions.
The trees are more firmly fixed in the ground than if planted shallow
and are therefore less afl'ected by the winds. In other ways there
appears to be good reason for this deep planting.

ICir. .-.II

12 FRUTT GROWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS.

Strono; winds are characteristic- of the Great Plains — so much so
that in many exposed sections the tops of the trees ])y its force are
distinctly inchned away from the direction of the prevaihng wind.
At most points this is from the southwest. To overcome the influ-
ence of these prevailing winds the trees when they are set should be
inclined somewhat toward the quarter from which these winds come.
The direction for setting as given in one instance is to "incline the
trees toward the 2 o'clock sun."

By leaning the trees, as suggested, the injury to the trunks which
often occurs where they lean toward the north or northwest — that is,
away from the sun, may be largely avoided. This injury is generally
attributed to the intense heat of the sun shining on the exposed
trunks, but it is probably more often the result of too rapid thawing
in the sun after heavy freezing.

The general principles that apply in planting fruit trees apply in
regard to small fruits, etc.; hence, no special comments about han-
dling them appear necessary.

WIND-BREAKS.

Another method of preventing the undesirable effects of the winds
is to plant a wind-break, or ''shelter belt," on the side or sides of the
orchard from which the prevailing winds come. A wind-break is
made by planting hardy trees of some kind that will grow as rapidly
as or faster than the fruit trees. It should usually be started at the
same time the fruit trees are put out, unless the planting of the
orchard has been anticipated and trees for the wind-break started in
advance of the fruit trees.

If the space is restricted, a single hedge row of some strong-growing
tree will amount to something as a shelter for the orchard. But
l)etter results will follow if several rows of trees be planted. A
common practice is to set at least three rows 8 feet apart and the
trees 8 feet apart in the rows. The trees in the different rows should
alternate, so that in one row they will stand opposite the center of the
space between the trees in the adjoining ones.

A number of different kinds of trees are used in the central and
southern Great Plains for wind-breaks. Mr. J. E. Payne,'* super-
intendent of the departmental substation at Akron, Colo., recom-
mends the Russian mulberry, the black locust, and the wild Russian
olive. The Russian mulberry, however, is not entirely hardy in all
parts of the central Great Plains. In many places, seedling Russian
apricots would probably be satisfactory to use with other kinds of
trees and possibly some seasons when not injured l)y spring frosts
they would produce fruit.

a See Bulletin 130, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 65.
rcir. .Ml

FRUIT GROWING FOR HOME T^SE IN THE GREAT PLAINS. 13

The Forest Service" of this Departineiil suggests for ])lanting in
eastern Colorado tlie green ash, the honey locust, the white and
goklen wihow, the white ehn, the Russian ohve, and the Carohna
pophir, and in the Panhandle of Texas, the hlack locust, the honey
locust, the Osage orange, and the Russian mulheny. Tlie latter,
besides forming a dense w^ind-break, in favorable seasons produces
considerable fruit that is much liked hy birds. When there is a
supply of this fruit at hand, it is said that birds will eat it in prefer-
ence to cherries. Hence the planting of mulberries is frequently
recommended as a means of protecting the cherry crop from bird
depredations.

Professor Longyeai,* of the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, gives the following advice about w^ind-breaks :

For the taller growing tree in this region the common cottonwood may be used,
setting them about 8 feet apart for the outer or north and west rows. A second row
of some denser growing kind should be planted about 8 feet from the first and as close
as 4 feet in the row. l-'or this purpose box elder is a suitable tree, except in dry situa-
tions, in which case the green ash is recommended. The trees in the third row may
be planted in the same as in the second row, using a more compact-growing kind. The
Russian golden willow is recommended for this purpose as a rapid grower. The
Russian wild olive is a more compact tree of lower growth and is particularly desirable.
White or American elm is also a suitable tree for the inner rows in many places, espe-
cially where a fair amount of moisture can be depended on.

In cases where the wind is exceptionally strong, it may be found necessary to plant
a belt 4 or 5 rods wide in order to secure complete protection. The outer two rows
may consist of Russian olive, the third and fourth rows of black locust, the fifth and
sixth rows of box elder or ash, the seventh and eighth rows of American elm, and the
inner two or three rows of cottonwood or Carolina poplar, the rows being about 8 feet
apart. The golden Russian willow may be used in place of the elm, and honey locust
may take the place of the black locust.

If the wind-break consists of several rows of trees as above sug-
gested the time will come in many cases wdien it may be possible
to cut some of the trees for posts and other uses. This may be done
whenever the trees are dense enough to give the necessary protection
to the orchard after being thinned out somewhat.

ORCHARD MAINTENANCE.

CULTIVATION.

In the semiarid central and southern Great Plains the most im-
portant thing, so far as cultivation is concerned in its relation to the
production of general crops, is the conservation of moisture. This is
equally true in relation to the growing of an orchard and the produc-
tion of a crop of fruit. In general, the methods and the tillage im-

a Letter dated November 16, 1909, from the District Forester of District No. 2.
& Bulletin 123, Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 16.
[Cir. .-,n

14

FKUIT GROWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS.

plements that have been found most satisfactory in any given section
may also be used in cultivating the fruit plantation, with a single
exception. In plowing the orchard and in the use of other imple-
ments of tillage, care must be taken not to work the soil so deep that
the roots are injured. If the trees are set deep when they are planted,
there will be little danger in this respect. A well-cultivated apple
orchard located near Plainview, Tex., is shown in figure 2. The
surface has been maintained in good condition for conserving moisture.
The maintenance of soil fertility by frequently renewing the supply
of humus is essential to continued success. Nothing is better for this
than stable or barnyard manure. The turning under of some green-

'

^^E^^s»

^

.^

j

-ffSM^' . .''* i'v ^Sh

m^ ^A

"

^W^

i^^^***5^:"-

HHM

i-t*.^^^

h

■-^m

HllMlHHI

I^^HtL.

' - -■

^jQinlH^^^^^^HHHHHHi

Fig. 2.— Apple orchard six years old grown ■without irrigation at Tlainview, Tex. Tlie tops are rather too
dense, but fonned at a desirable height from the ground. A good soil mulch has been maintained.

manure crop, however, makes an efficient substitute. A good supply
of humus is also of the greatest importance in connection with the
supply of moisture and its conservation.

IRRIGATION.

The possibility has been mentioned of resorting to irrigation in
order to tide over the trees or other fruit-prodiicing plants in times
of severe drought. Figure 3 shows a small earth reservoir used for
retaining a supply of water for this purpose. There are many of
them in this region. One may be constructed on almost any ranch
and in most yards where there is a good well of water and a windmill.

[Cir. 51]

FRUIT GROWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS.

15

It is made by excavating the earth and mounding it up somewhat
about the edge or rim of the reservoir. The inside is then puddled
witli cLay or in some other way made sufficiently impervious to water
to prevent seepage. The water may be siphoned out for distribution.

SPRAYING.

On account of the dry atmosphere in the Great Plains region, fun-
gous diseases will probably not be serious, but the more common
insect pests may be expected to do more or less damage unless means
of control are applied. The insect problems, however, are doubtless
so similar to those of other regions that the methods of control that
are effective elsewhere will prove satisfactory here.

Fig. 3.— An earth ■• lauk, " or reservoir, for irrigating small gardens and fruit plantations.

Much information about spraying for fruit diseases and insects is con-
tained in publications of this Department. The more important ones
are as follows :

Fanners' Bulletins. — Xo. 127, Important Insecticides; No. 243, Fungicides and
Their Use in Preventing Diseases of Fruits; No. 283, Spraying for Apple Diseases and
the Codling Moth in the Ozarks; No. 284, Insect and Ftmgous Enemies of the Grape
East of the Rocky Mountains.

Circulars, Bureau of Entomology. — No. 20, The W00II3' Ajihis of the Apple; No. 2G,
The Pear Slug; No. 29, The Fruit Tree Bark P.eetle; No. 32, The Larger Apple-Tree
Borers; No.54,ThePeach-TreeBorer; No.73,ThePlumCurculio; No. 81, The Aphides
Affecting the Apple; No. 98, The Apple-Tree Tent Caterpillar; No. 101, The Apple
Maggot or Railroad Worm.

Circular, Bureau of Plant Industry. — No. 27, Lime-Sulphur Mixtures for the Summer
Spraying of Orchards.
[Cir. 51 ]

16 FEUIT GROWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS.

Yearbook Papm.— No. 50, Pear Blight: Its Cause and Prevention; No. 386, The
Principal Insect Eneriiies of the Peach; No. 433, Lime-Sulphur Washes for the San
Jose Scale; No. 4G0, The Codling Moth or Apple Worm; No. 480, Information about
Sprajdng for Orchard Insects.

These publications are all for free distribution and may be secured
upon application to the Secretary of Agriculture.

PRUNING.

A great many of the fruit trees now growing in the region in ques-
tion are in serious need of judicious pruning. The chief fault at
present is that too many branches have been allowed to grow and
the tops of the trees have become too brushy. They have not been
kept sufficiently open for the best results.

Of course the other extreme is also accompanied by serious results.
The top must not be too open. If large limbs, and especially the
trunks, are exposed to the direct rays of the sun, "sun scald," as the
splitting of the bark in the spring is usually called, will often occur.
This will greatly injure the tree.

It is difficult to give specific directions for pruning, as every tree
presents its own problems and difficulties. But with the objects of
pruning and the dire results of both extremes fully in mind, a desir-
able mean sliould not be difficult to reach.

The aim should be to cut out all branches that cross or in any way
interfere with others that are more important and to thin out the tops
enougli to keep them comparatively open for tlie admission of air and
sunlight. Where a vigorously growing tree is allowed to go year after
year with no pruning, the limbs that compose the top become much
crowded. The struggle for existence grows so intense that only weak,
poorly nourished buds develop.

If the orchard is looked over every year during the winter or early
spring and such branches removed as may be necessary to meet the
ends in view, very little pruning will need to be done in any one year.
Only rarely will there be occasion to remove large limbs.

In pruning the first year to form the head of the tree it will often
be possible to leave branches which will effectively shade the trunk
from the sun, especially if the tree is headed quite near the ground.
Tliis will make possible the development of an open-headed tree
without danger of any serious secondary results. Leaning the tree
toward ''the afternoon sun" when it is set out, as previously sug-
gested, will also reduce the danger of injury which might result if the
tops were made too open at any time.

Another reason for thinning out the tree tops as much as is consist-
ent with their healthfulness and crop-producing capacity is its rela-
tion to the soil moisture. This feature is generally overlooked in this
semiarid rop;ion. Within certahi limits the more branches there are

[Cir. 51J

FRUIT GROWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS. 17

in a tree top, and consequently the more foliage there is, the greater
the amount of moisture that is taken up from the soil and passed off
through the leaves into the atmosphere.

Two very strong reasons are thus indicated why fruit trees should
be thoroughly and systematically pruned: (1) It results in the pro-
duction of better fruit and in many cases more of it. (2) It is a
factor in conserving the soil moisture. This is always of great impor-
tance in this region.

There is a great difference in different kinds of fruit trees and even
in different varieties of the same kind with regard to the amount of
pruning that is nec-
essary or desirable,
some requiring very
severe treatment,
while others call for
very little. But
witli the underlying
principles in mind
the application of
them is not difl&cult.
Reference to the ac-
companying illus-
trations will be sug-
gestive in regard to
this operation.
Figure 4 shows a
peach tree about
four years old that
stands in a yard in
Plainview,Tex. It

is low headed, its I'lo- 4.— a well-formed peach tree about four years oUl, riamview, Xex.

branches are not too numerous, and in general it may be considered
a well-formed, well-pruned tree.

Figure 5<* is a Ben Davis apple tree that stands in a dry-land orchard
about IS miles southeast of Denver, Colo. This tree has not been
allowed to develop a top that is too dense, and in other respects it is
desirable as to form.

The trees shown in figure 2 also are headed low and have other de-
sirable features, but the tops should be tliinned out somewhat to make
them more open.

« The owner of the orchard in which the tree shown in figure 5 is located has a
field of alfalfa on a creek bottom that passes through his ranch. He was irrigating
this alfalfa at the time the photograph was taken. This is why he was wearing rub-
ber boots. The orchard has never been irrigated. The roots of this tree probably
do not reach the water table.
[Cir. .51]

18

FRUIT GROWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS.

VARIETIES.

Perhaps the most serious question relating to fruit growing in the
central and southern Great Plains is the matter of suitable varieties
to plant. It is likewise one of the most difficult ]iroblems concerning
wliicli to make suggestions or give advice. To be successful, the
trees or other plants must be able to withstand severe climatic con-
ditions. The moisture supply is always scanty. The winds are

often very drying
and may cause the
soil moisture t o
evaporate to a se-
rious degree. Dry-
ing winds also cause
large quantities of
water to be given
off through the
leaves. In some
sections the tem-
]:)erature drops very
low at times. Wlien
all these conditions
prevail at once and
for any extended
])eriod, a combina-
tion exists the se-
verity of which can
hardly be exceeded.
If there is no snow
on the ground at
such times to pro-
tect the roots from
very hard freezing,
the danger of seri-
ous injury to the

table. It would Tie better if more of the lower, small secondary branches +rQgs ig p-reatlv in-
had been left to shade the larger limbs and trunk. ,

creased.
The varieties of the various kinds of fruit grown in the region under
discussion are quite limited in number. With few exceptions, the
plantings are young, so the merits of the different sorts that have
been planted are not yet fully determined. Under these conditions
it is not possible to make any very definite recommendations as to
varieties for this region. However, tlie following lists, composed

[^'ii-. 51]

Fig. 5.— a well-formed Ben iJavis apple tree, grown without irrigaiioii
near Littleton, Colo. The roots of this tree prob&bly do not reach the water

FRUIT GROWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS, 19

largely of varieties that growei-s thus far regard favorably, will be
suggestive in the extension of fruit growing.'*

It should 1)0 understood, however, that the suggestions as to
varieties to plant are only tentative. Further experience and obser-
vation will doubtless result in many changes.''

Vnrieties Svggestedfor the Central Great Plains.

APPLES — continued .
Crabs.

Florence.
Siberian Yellow.
Transcendent.
^Vhitnov.

APPLES.

Early varieties.

Benoni.

Chenango.

Early Harvest.

Jefferis.

Maiden P>lu.<h.

Oldenburg {Duchess of Oldenburg).

Red June.

Summer Queen.

Yellow Transjiarent.
Mid-season varieties.

Grimes.

Jonathan.

Wealthy.
Winter varieties.

Arkansas {Mammoth Blach Twig).

Arkansas Black.

Ben Davis.

Coffelt.

Missouri {Missouri Pippin).

Northwestern {Northwestern Green-
ing).

Ralls {Genet, Geneton).

Rome Beauty.

Shackleford .

PLUMS.

A.merica.

Damson.

De Soto.

Forest Garden.

German Prune.

Golden {Gold).

Italian Prune.

Kroh {Poole's Pride).

Lombard.

Pride {Shi j) per s Pride).

Waugh.

Wildgoose.

CHERRIES.

Dyehouse.

Montmorency Ordinaire { Montmorency) . <^

Morello {English Mnrcllo, Wragg).

Richmond {Early Richmond).

Suda {Suda Hardy).

CRAPES.

Agawam .
Concord .

lib in personal interviews

Stayman Winesap.

a Growers have supplied information regarding varieties
with the writer and by correspondence.

b Some of the varieties mentioned in the.se lists arc more commonly known in this
region by a synonym than by the name that conforms to the rules of nomenclature
adopted by the American Pomological Society. As these rules are followed as far as
possible, the accepted name is given in each case, ^^^^erever this course is likely to
cause confusion as to the identity of any variety, the synonym by which it is com-
monly known is given in italics after the leading name.

cMuch confusion exists regarding the identity of the cherries grown in America
under the names Montmorency, Montmorency Ordinaire, and Large Montmorency.
Growers in the Great Plains area commonly use the name Montmorency without
distinguishing one variety of this group from another. Many nurserymen also fail to
discriminate between them. It appears probable that the variety most commonly
planted in this area is the sort commonly known in the New York nurseries as Mont-
morency Ordinaire, though it has also been distributed more or less under the name
Large Montmorency. The Large Montmorency variety of the eastern nurseries is
claimed to be of better quality than Montmorency Ordinaire, but it is considered a
shy bearer.
[Cir. 51]

20 FKUIT GKOWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS.

Varieties Suggested for the Central Great Ptazns— Continued.

GRAPES — continued .
Diamond {Moure's Diamond).
Niagara.
Worden .

Champion.

Downing.

Houghton.

GOOSEBERRIES — Continued.
Industry.
Pearl.

CURRANTS.

Fay (Fay's Prolific).
London (London Market).
^^^lite Grape.
CrandalL

Varieties Suggested for the Southern Great Plains."

GOOSEBERRIES.

APPLES.

CHERRIES.

Green-

Montmorency Ordinaire { Montmorenaj) .^
Morello (English Morello, Wragg).
Richmond (Early Richmond).
Spanish ( Yellow Spanish).

Early varieties.

Early Harvest.

Horse ( Yellow Horse).

Maiden Blush.

Red June.

Tetofski.

Yellow Transparent.
Mid-season varieties.

Grimes.

Jonathan .

Wealthy.
Winter varieties.

Arkansas Black.

Ben Davis.

Bismarck.

Gano.

Limbertwig.

Missouri (Missouri Pippin).

Northwestern ( Northirestern
ing).

Ralls (Genet, Gene ton).

Rome Beauty.

Winesap.
Crabs.

Florence.

Hyslop.

Whitney.

a Certain fruits are being propagated and planted in this section under the varietal
names mentioned below, the exact identity and standing of which it has not been
found possible to determine. It is possible that some of them are well-known sorts
to which local names have been applied. As they are apparently of considerable
value in this section of the Great Plains and the names as given have definite signifi-
cance there, it seems advisable to mention them in this connection. The principal
varieties that come in this group are:

Apples: Hale County Beauty, Lively Choice, Stormproof, Red Winter Cluster,
Yellow Cluster.

Pear: McWIiorter.

Peaches: Annie Williams, Dalmont's Favorite, Horlacher.

Plum: Six Weeks.

b See footnote c, page 19.
[Cir. 51]

PLUMS.

Damson.

Golden (Gold).

Golden Beauty.

Hammer.

Hawkeye.

Kroh (Poole's Pride).

Lombard.

Nona.

Pottawattamie.

Wolf.

Wonder.

PEACHES.

Alexander.

Alton.

Arp {Arp Beauty).

( 'arman .

Chinese Cling.

Elberta.

Heath (Heath Cling).

Lee (General Lee).

Lemon Cling.

FRUIT GROWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS.

21

Varieties Suggested for the Southern Great Plahis — Continued.

G RAPES. o

Beacon.

Carman .

Concord .

Diamond (Moore's Diamond).

Fern Munson.

Gold Coin.

Marguerite.
Niagara.

PEACHES — continued.
Levy (Henrietta).
Mamie Ross.
Oldmixon Cling.
Sneed.
Triumph.

PEARS.

Alamo.

Angoulonie (Durhesse d'Angoulenie).

Bartlctf.

Koonce.

Wilder.

Varieties Suggested for Western Nebraska.
No investigations regarding fruit growing have been made by the
writer in western Nebraska and eastern Wyoming. It is perhaps
possible, liowever, to suggest varieties of fruit for })lanting in this
section of the Great Plains with greater assurance than for any other
portion of the semiarid region. This is on account of the long
experience of a nurseryman and fruit grower who resides in Saline
County, Nebraska, and who for many years has been planting
orchanls in western Nebraska. After having tested a large number
of varieties, he suggests'' for Lincoln County, Nebraska, and other
comparable sections the followang:

APPLES — continued.

APPLES.

Early variety.

Oldenburg (Duchess of Oldenburg).
Mid-season varieties.

Cole Quince.

Day.

Grimes.

Jonathan.

Maiden Blush.

Plumb Cider.

Wealthy.
Winter varieties.

Ben Davis.

Missouri (Missouri Pippin).

Ralls (Genet, Geneton).

Winesap.

Crab.

AMiituey.

PLUMS.

De Soto.
Forest Garden.
Hawkeye.
Lombard.
Wyant.

CHERRIES.

Montmorency Ordinaire (Montmorency).^

Morello (English Morello, Wragg).

Ostheim.

Richmond (Early Richmond).

Varieties Suggested for the Extreme Western Portion of Nebraska and Eastern Wyoming.

-continued.

APPLE s-
^\'inter varieties.

Northwestern (Northwestern Green-
ing).
Patten (Patten Greening).
Ralls (Genet, Geneton).

APPLES.

Karly varieties.

Oldenburg {Duchess of Oldenburg).

Yellow Transparent.
Mid-season varieties.

Day.

Longfield.

Wealthy.

a Several of the varieties here named are hybrids originated and introduced by
T. V. Munson, Denison, Tex. Other hybrids and seedlings of his production may
also be adapted to this region.

f> In a letter to the writer. c See footnote c, p. 19.

[Cir. 51]

22 FKUIT GKOWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS.

FURTHER COMMENTS ABOUT VARIETIES.

As late spring frosts cause much injury to fruits in this region dur-
ing tlie blossoming period, it is important to select for planting-
varieties that blossom relatively late so far as it is possible to do so.

Very few currants and gooseberries are grown in the Panhandle
region and correspondingly little information is available as to what
varieties are adapted to this section. Hence, no sorts are named in
the lists of fruits for planting there. It is probable, however, that
the varieties suggested for the central section would be as satisfac-
tory in the southern portion as any that could be named.

Juneberries have been successful at some points and are probably
worthy of planting throughout the portion of the Great Plains under
consideration. Other small fruits, such as raspberries, blackberries,
strawberries, etc., are occasionally grown but frequently suffer from
drought, especially if it comes early in the season. Not much can
be said at this time, however, as to varieties. The Kansas blackcap
raspberry, the Kittatinny and Dallas blackberries, and the Mayes
(Austin) dewberry have been mentioned as giving satisfaction,
especially if they are given some irrigation. The fruitfulness of cur-
rants is also said to be greatly increased, in some instances, if they
are Avatered early in the season.

In some of the colder and more exposed locations the cane fruits
require protection to prevent winterkilling. This can be given by
laying the canes down and covering with earth during cold weather.

It will be noted that in the lists of varieties suggested for planting
in the central and southern Great Plains, many sorts are listed for
both sections. This naturally follows, because of the similarity of
the conditions existing throughout these sections. In fact it seems
quite probable that the same varieties in nearly every case might
prove satisfactory in both the central and southern sections. At
least, a variety that is proving satisfactory in the central portion
would doubtless be a promising one for trial farther south. Lower
winter temperatures sometimes prevail in the central portion of
this redon than in the southern. There is more rainfall in the
southern than in the central portion. Because of these differences
varieties that can be grown successfully in the Panhandle of Texas
might not, in all cases, prove sufHciently hardy and drought re-
sistant for eastern Colorado and western Kansas.

In the majority of cases, those who have set out orchards or other
fruits have not kept any record of the varieties planted. The variety
labels or other marks of identification soon become detached and the
names of the different sorts are forgotten. In a section like this,
where little is known about the adaptability of varieties, it is very

[Cir. 51]

FRUIT GROWING FOR HOME USE IN THE GREAT PLAINS. 23

often of j^reat iinjjortiince to know the names of the varieties that
are being grown. 'J'his may be of value not only to outside parties
but also to the growers themselves.

It is therefore recommended that whenever fruit trees or other
frviit-bearing j)Iants are set out, a record of the varieties be made and
preserved for future reference. If a plat of the land be made showing
just where every tree or ])lant of each variety is planted it may add
materially to the value of other records that are kept.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agiicultttre.

Washington, 1). V., January in, I!/ In.

H'ir. r.ij

o

Issued March 7, 1910.

U. S; DEPARTMENT Ol- AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 52.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

WART DISEASE OF THE POTATO;

A DANGEROUS EUROI^EAN DISEASE LIABLE TO BE
INTRODUCED INTO THE UNITED STATES.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
SY BOTANICAL

W. A. ORTON, Pathologist,

AND

ETHEL C. FIELD, Scientific Assistant,

Cotton and Truck Diseases and Sugak-Plant

Investigations.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1910

26143—10

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

[Cir. 52]
2

Chief nf Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief nf Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

B. P. I.— 550.

WART DISEASE OE THE POTATO;

A DANGEROUS EUROPEAN DISEASE LIABLE TO P,E INTRO-
DUCED INTO THE UNITED STATES.

INTRODUCTION.

A new disease of the potato which has been exciting;- alarm in Europe
is likeh^ to be introduced into this country at any time. This circular
is issued to call the attention of American (growers and importers of
potatoes to this danj>-er and to uroe their cooperation in an effort to
prevent it from securing a foothold here. It is important that any
cases discovered be promptly reported and all possible means taken to
prevent its occurrence.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DISEASE.

The disease, which has been known as "warty disease," "black
scab," "canker," and "cauliflower," is one which attacks the tuber
principally, and consequently is not observed until harvesting time.
In a bad attack of the disease big, dark, warty excrescences, sometimes
as large as the tuber itself, appear on its sides or ends. "The growth
consists here of a mass of coral-like or more or less scabby excres-
cences or nodules, similar in appearance to the well-known crown or
root gall of apples. The adherent earth can be easily washed off
when the character of the growth })ecomes more apparent. It is not
spongy and not detachable from the tuber. It is of a somewhat lighter
color at the base and dotted with minute rusty-brown spots over the
surface. * * * In an advanced stage the tubers are wholly cov-
ered by this growth, having lost every resem])lance to potatooti. They
are lumps of irregular outline, never spherical or oblong, but simply
a mass of ragged and edged excrescences. * * * a still more
advanced stage occurs when the fungus has utilized every particle of
food stored in the tuber and has reduced it to a brownish-black soft
mass giving off a very unpleasant putrefactive odor. This is the most
dangerous stage of the disease, and the tubers which have reached it
can not bo harvested whole. Tiiey break in pieces, and thus the brown-
ish, pulpy mass, consisting almost entirely of spores of the fungus
ICir. 52] 3

4 WABT DISEASE OF THE POTATO.

and remains of the cell walls of the potato, is broken up, the spores
are liberated in millions, and the land is badly infected for years."
(Giissow, 1909.) (See Pis. I and II.j

In a mild attack the eyes first appear grayish, then turn brown, and
finally black, while in a healthy tuber these are whitish or purplish in
color. The tuber is onl}^ slightly disfigured and its keeping qualities
do not seem to be impaired.

While the tuber is the part of the plant chiefly affected, infection
may take place in all the young tissues of the plant, the roots, stolons,
stems, and even the leaves.

THREATENING NATURE OF THE DISEASE.

All reports indicate that the potato wart is one of the most serious
of all known diseases of the potato. It converts the tuber into an
ugl}', irregular, and utterh' unsalable growth. When established in
a fleld it ma}^ affect the entire crop, and the land remains so infected
that potatoes can not be successfully grown for six or more years.

We quote from writers abroad the following:

J. W. Eastham (Yearbook, College of Agriculture and Horticulture,
Holmes Chapel, 1904): "When once established in the land it is use-
less to grow potatoes again until the pest has been starved out or
otherwise destroyed; but so far as is known no other crops are liable
to be attacked. Quite the worst case seen in Cheshire ocxjurred on
land that had not borne potatoes for six years; 'seed' from the same
source as that employed on this land yielded satisfactory results else-
where, indicating that spores were not introduced by the seed, whilst
the manure emplo3'ed started no infection elsewhere. This indicates
prolonged vitality on the part of the fungus, which would render
starving out a very tedious process."

E. S. Salmon (Gardeners' Chronicle, 1907): "It is quite clear,
however, that the 'black scab' disease threatens to inflict such serious
injur}^ on the potato crop as to warrant the Board of Agriculture
taking official action. * * •• The disease is viewed with alarm by
both the scientific and the practical man, and yet no steps are being
taken to deal with this pest which, if it is allowed to spread through
the country and to reach Ireland, will cause losses of hundreds of
thousands of pounds.''

Borthwick (1907), referring to an outbreak in Scotland, says: "The
whole crop was damaged to the extent that the}' could not be used.
They were quite useless, the earl}^ varieties being, if anything, worse
than the late, especially the early kidneys. The disease was first
noticed when the new potatoes began to form. It first appeared on
the stems as a greenish -looking canker, which attacked the tubers as
they grew and soon made them a mass of corruption."

[Cir. 52]

Cir. 52, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate

Potato Plant Attacked by Wart Disease. (After GOssow.)

WABT DISEASE OP THE POTATO. 5,

■ M. C. Potter ((jrardciiinj:^, 1908): "From all accounts the disease is
spreadiuo- ra[>idly in the infested areas and the amount of damaj^e is
yearly inci"casin(^. * * * In certain allotments * * * it has
been found impossible to ^a-ow potatoes.''

John Percival (1901t): " Potato wart has al read}" become a serious
trouble in many districts in this country, and it is likely to develop
into the worst pest with which the grower will have to deal unless
vigorous measures are adopted to stamp it out.''

T. Johnson (1909): ''It needs onlv a ver}" casual acquaintance with
the facts of the case in the British Isles from tlie time of the discovery
of the trouble by Potter in 1902 to the present time to warn one of
the necessity of taking all possible steps to stamp out a disease which
may become as serious as ordinary leaf-blight and less amenable to
treatment. * * * It is now found in man}" districts in England,
Wales, and Scotland. It is often so pronounced as to destroy the
whole crop, and it is not confined to garden plots. Warty tubers are
naturally poorer in food matter than liealthy ones, and when not
destroyed in the field do not keep well in store. They ought to be
destroyed as soon astound, and on no account saved for seed."

The Gardeners' Chronicle, 1908: "This disease * * * is excit-
ing some alarm in Germany, where it is said to be spreading. It
appears to have been recognized as of local occurrence for some time
in the neighborhood of Diisseldorf, Elberfeld. * * * During this
season it has proved so injurious as to have entirely destroyed the crop
in many gardens where potatoes have been raised year by year."

Dr. O. Appel (1908), on the other liand, says: ''According to reports
of Spieckermann, Schneider, and rJosting. who have observed it this
year in Germany, the disease is not of economic importance."

The British Board of Agriculture and Fisheries made it a notifiable
disease in 1907 under the Destructive Insects and Pests Acts, 1877-
1907. The following report (Gardeners' Chronicle, 1909) was made:
"The board of agriculture and fisheries desire to notify that 244
cases of wart disease or black scab in this year's potato crop had been
reported to them up to October 3. These cases have occurred in the
following counties: Shi'opshire, 60; Stafiordshire, 57; Lancashire, 50;
Cheshire, 30; Warwickshire, 25; Worcestershire and Leicestershire, 4
each; Derbyshire, 3; Merioneth, 2; and 1 each in Perthshire, Stirling-
shire, Dumfrieshire, Cumberland, Nottingham, Berkshire, Flintshire,
Brecanshire, and Glamorgan. A few cases among field crops have been
found in the counties in which the disease is most common, l)ut in the
great majority of cases the disease has occurred on allotments or in
gardens in which potatoes are constantly grown * * *. The dis-
ease has been known in certain districts for ten to fifteen years, and
as growers have taken no steps to check its progress, it is now causing

irir. 51']

6 WAET DISEASE OF THE POTATO.

serious loss * * *. All eases of wart disease must be notified to
the seoretar}-, board of agriculture and fisheries * * *. In the
case of farmers who sell ' seed ' potatoes, notification of the disease
is of especial importance, and failure to notify must be regarded as a
serious offense * * *. Persons concealing wart disease are liable
to prosecution and a penalty of £10."

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE DISEASE.

The disease has been reported from P^ngland (see p. 5), from Scot-
land in Perth, Sterling, and Clackmannan counties; from Ireland in
Down County; from AVales; from Germany in Westphalia and the
Rhine provinces; and from upper Hungary. It has not yet been
brought to the United States so far as known, but has already crossed
the Atlantic and become prevalent in Newfoundland, where it was
lately discovered by Dr. H. T. Giissow, Dominion botanist, who pre-
sented a very interesting paper on the subject in December, 1909,
before the American Phytopathological Society. Knowing the serious
character of the new pest from personal observation of the losses
caused in England, he promptly issued a waa'ning bulletin. The
Canadian government proposes taking active measures to prevent the
further introduction of the disease. Doctor Giissow stated that there
have been recent importations of seed potatoes from Newfoundland
into the United States.

NATURE OF THE PARASITE.

The organism causing the disease is a fungus discovered in 1896
in potatoes from upper Hungary by Schilbersky, who named it
Clirij802My<Ms enikMotlea and placed it in the lowest group of the
ChytridiacefB, Olpidiacete. By others the fungus has been supposed
to be OeiJomyces lepro!des. We quote from the excellent description
of Prof. T. Johnson, as follows: "The vegetative form consists of a
naked mass of protoplasm which may be distinguished in the host
cells (just below the epidermis) by being denser, homogeneous, and
finely granular. It may be seen abutting on the host protoplasm,
and disputing with it, as it devours it, occupation of the enlarging
cell cavity. The protoplasm follows and then the cell wall. This,
though brown, does not, like the protoplasm and nucleus, disappear.
The starch grains are the last attacked and remain white and unin-
jured for some time in an invaded cell. The parasitic plasmodium
passes from cell to cell by boring its passage through the host cell
wall * * *. It is in this stage that it stimulates to active cell
division the surrounding host cells and produces the gall or wart."

ICir. 52]

Cir. 52, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Resting Spores of Wart Disease.
Section thrDUtrli n siiimII tulicrrlc shiiwiiig sporangia. (After Gtissow.)

Tuber Showing Warty Excrescences.

(From Journal ol Hoard of .VKrioultiire, .lanii.iry. I'.IOD.)

WART DISEASE OF THE POTATO. 7

During the summer the plasmoclium rounds up, forming a smooth, yel-
lowish wail about itself. Later the contents of these zoosporangia
break up itito numerous zoospores, which escape through a hole in
the wall and attack healthy potato tissue.

"As the tuber ripens the parasite replaces the summer sporangia
by resting ones, which carry the disease through the winter and serve
to propagate it in the spring * * *. The resting sporangia,
30-70 fx in diameter, are very numerous in diseased tubers and are
easily recognizable with a pocket lens. Under the microscope the
wall is seen to be not smooth, but ridged or angular. These brown
ridges or bands form part of a kind of epispore which arises as the
sporangium ripens, and seems to be formed f i-om the residual con-
tents of the host cell when not also from its cell wall as well * * *.
The ^epispore is thus deposited from without as a third layer on the
thickening wall of the sporangium. If this more or less artificial
epispore is ignored, then one may speak of the spore wall as
smooth * * *. As a rule there is only one resting sporangium in
a host cell; occasionally there are two." It is exceedingly difficult to
germinate these resting spores artificially. Professor Johnson suc-
ceeded in bringing about germination b}' placing them in potato juice.
He writes: "At last the potato juice, exercising possibly a chemo-
tactic influence, gave success; and sporangia with split walls and
escaping zoospores were found. These showed the same sluggish
movements observed in the sporangia of certain other Ch3'tridians
disturbed during their resting period. Each sporangium contains
hundreds of more or less pear-shaped uniciliate zoospores. The zoo-
spores measure from 1.5 to 2.4 /^ in diameter. The bod}^ is actively
anueboid, while the cilium is comparatively passive." (T. Johnson,
1909.)

Infection takes place usually at the "eyes" of the tuber through the
zoospores of either the summer or resting sporangia which are found
infesting the surrounding soil. It is also believed by Johnson and
others that infection may take place through the internal passage of
Plasmodia from diseased seed passing through the stolons arising there-
from, and so into the newly-formed tubers.

MEANS OF EXCLUSION.

At the present time the United States has no legislation that will
prevent the importation of such a trouble. No quarantine is main-
tained against plant diseases, nor is the Secretary of Agriculture
authorized to inspect or reject infected potatoes, seeds, or nursery
stock of any description.

[c:ir. 52]

8

WART DISEASE OF THE POTATO.

The most eflfective protection against the importation of potatoes is
the tariff of 25 cents a bushel. Yet in spite of this the following
quantities have come to our markets from abroad:''

Country from which imported.

Austria-Hungary

Belgium

Bermuda

Canada

Germany

Netherlands

Spain

United Kingdom.
Other countries . .

Year ended .Tune 30 —

1906.

Quantity.

Bushels.

34,909

37,275

68, 964

421, 106

152, 323

9,316

1,774

1,192,074

30, 419

Value.

Dollars.
17, 146
14, 422

95, 205

126, 798

69, 761

5, 379

1,558

504,377

18, 417

Total 1,948,160

853, 063

1907.

Quantity,

Bushels.

741

75

87,048

11,393

39,419

5,704

7,730

5, 673

19, 134

Value.

Dollars.
331

84

135, 569

5,970

19, 984

2,184

7,408

3,706

17,399

176,917 I 192,635

1908.

Quantity.

Bushels.

1,723

6, 889

80,711

177, 102

62, 059

38, 892

11,246

2, 269

23, 061

403, 952

Value.

Dollars.

746

3, 650

109, 561

80,006

38,368

18, 169

11,596

1, 321

19,616

283,032

The principal ports of entr}^ of potatoes in 1908 were as follows:
Aroostook, Me., 67,766 bushels; Bangor, Me., 56,312 bushels; Boston
and Charlestown, Mass., 34,901 bushels; New York, 202,069 bushels;
Passamaquodd}^ Me., 3,286 bushels; Porto Rico. 19,285 bushels; Key
West, Fla., 2,613 bushels; Arizona, 8,213 bushels; Charaplain, N. Y.,
1,390 bushels; other ports, 8,057 bushels. Total, 103,952 bushels.''

Since the interest and knowledge of the public must be our main
dependence in preventing the establishment of the potato wart in
Amei'ica, it is urged that all importers, dealers, and consumers of
foreign potatoes watch for the disease and promptly report to the
Department of Agriculture at Washington any cases discovered.

All infected potatoes should be boiled or burned. No part of any
lot containing diseased potatoes should be used for seed purposes.

If the disease is found on growing potatoes, heroic measures should
be taken to eradicate the trouble by burning the entire lot and planting
no more potatoes on that field for six or seven years.

There should be some modification of our laws so as to enable the
Secretary of Agriculture to deal promptl}- with special dangers of this
sort arising from the importation of infected plants.

a Bulletin 76, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 54.
b Information furnished by Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
K'ir. 52]

LITERATURE.

1896. ScHiLBEKSKY. Kill neuer Shorfparasit der KartoffelknoUen. Berichte der
Deutscheii Botanischen Gesellschaft, vol. 14, 1896, p. 36.

1902. (Anon.) Some ])otato diseases. The Journal of the Board of Agriculture,
vol. 9, 1902-8, p. 307.

1902. Cakrlthers, W. Diseases of trees and plants. The Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, vol. 63, 1902, p. 288.

1902. Potter, M. C. A new potato disease {Chri/sophlydis endobiotica) . The

Journal of the Board of Agriculture, vol. 9, 1902-3, p. 320.

1903. (Anon. ) A new potato disease. The Agricultural Gazette, vol. 57, 1903, p. 26.
1903. (Anon. j The warty disease of potatoes. The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 33,

1903, p. 329.
1903. Carrithers. Potato canker in Lancashire. The Journal of the Royal

Agricultural Society of England, vol. 64, 1903, p. 305.
1903. Cooke. Potato tumour {Oedomnces leproides Trab.). The Journal of the

Royal Horticultural Society, vol. 27, 1903, p. 815.
1903. Cooke. Warty potato disease. The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 33, 1903,

p. 187.

1903. MacDougall, R. Stewart. New fungus disease of potatoes. Transactions,

Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, ser. 5, vol. 15, 1903, p. 312.

1904. (Anon.) La plaque noire des pommes de terre. Bulletin Mensuel de I'Oflace

de Renseignements Agricoles, vol. 3 (1904), no. 8, p. 924.
1904. (Anon.) Black scab {Oedomyces leproides Trab.). Queensland Agricultural

Journal, vol. 15 (1904), no. 2, pp. 605-607.
1904. (Anon.) Black scab. The Agricultural Gazette, vol. 59, 1904, p. 268.
1904. (Anon. ) Black scab of potatoes. The Agricultural Gazette, vol. 59, 1904,

p. 368.
1904. (Anon.) Black scab of potatoes (Oedo»?!/«'.s leproides Tra.h.—Chn/sophlydis

endobiotica Schilb.). Leaflet no. 105, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries,

London, April, 1904.
1904. Eastham, J. W. Black scab of potatoes. Yearbook, College of Agriculture

and Horticulture, Holmes Chapel, 1904, pp. 11-13.
1904. Massee, George. Some diseases of the potato. The Journal of the Royal

Horticultural Society, vol. 29, 1904, p. 139.
1904. MAS.SEE. Black scab {Oedomyces leproides). The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol.

35, 1904, p. 257.

1904. R. N. AVarty potato disease. The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 36, 1904, p. 372.

1905. Carruthers. Chrysophlyctis endobiotica canker. The Journal of the Royal

Agricultural Society of England, vol. 66, 1905, p. 167.
1905. Greaves, H. Warty disease of potatoes. The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 38,

1905, p. 346.
1905. Gkove, W. B. Warty disease of potatoes. The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 38,

1905, p. 308.
[Cir. 52] 9

10 WART DISEASE OF THE POTATO.

1906. (Anon.) Black sea)) of potatoes in North Wales. The Journal of the Board

of Agriculture, vol. 13, 1906-7, p. 441.

1907. (Anon. ) Warning. The Journal of the Board of Agriculture, vol. 15, 1907-8,

p. 119.

1907. (Anon.) Warning to potato growers. The Agricultural Gazette, vol. 65,
1907, p. 279.

1907. BoRTHwiCK. Warty disease of potatoes. Notes from the Royal Botanic Gar-
den, Edinburgh, no. 18, August, 1907, pp. 115-119.

1907. Dean, A. Black scab in potatoes. The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 42, 1907,
p. 417.

1907. RiEHM, E. Der Kartoffelkrebs in England. Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie,
Parasitenkunde,undInfektionskrankheiten, vol. 24, 2d part, 1907, pp. 208-213.

1907. Salmon, E. S. "Black scab" or "warty disease" of potatoes (Chryso-
phlyctis endobiotica Schilb.). The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 42, 1907, p.
397.

1907. Salmon, E. S. "Black scab" or "warty disease" of potatoes. {Chryso-

phlyctis endobiotica Schilb.). Bulletin of the County Councils of Kent a:nd
Surrey, 1907.o

1908. (Anon.) Black scab in potatoes. Journal, Department of Agriculture and

Technical Instruction for Ireland, vol. 8, no. 3, April, 1908, pp. 441-443.
1908. (Anon.) Wart disease (black scab) of potatoes. The Journal of Horticul-
ture and Home Farmer, vol. 57, 3d ser., 1908, p. 457.
1908. (Anon.) Wart disease (black scab) of potatoes. The Journal of the Board of

Agriculture, vol. 15, 1908-9, p. 671.
1908. (Anon.) Potato scab and legislation. The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 43,

1908, p. 235.
1908. (Anon.) Some potato diseases. The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 44, 1908, p.

146.
1908. (Anon.) Warty disease in potatoes. The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 44, .

1908, p. 266.
1908. (Anon.) Black scab of potatoes. The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 44, 1908,

p. 449.
1908. (Anon.) Varieties of scab in potatoes. The Journal of the Board of Agricul-
ture, vol. 15, 1908-9, p. 749.
1908. (Anon.) Black scab in potatoes. Leaflet No. 91, Department of Agriculture

and Technical Instruction for Ireland, 1908. «
1908. Appel, O. Der Kartoffelkrebs. Illustrierte Landwirthschaftliche Zeitung,

vol. 28, 1908, p. 832.
1908. Johnson. Potato black scab. Nature, 1908, p. 67.
1908. JosTixG. Der Kartoffelkrebs. Deutsche Landwirtschaftliche Presse, vol. 35,

1908, p. 883.0
1908. Potter, INI. C. Note on the warty disease and corky scab of the potato. The

Journal of the New Castle Farmers' Club, July, 1908.«
1908. Potter, M. C. The warty disease of the potato. Gardening, vol. 130,

1908, p. 456.
1908. Schneider. Eine eigenartige neue Kartoffelkrankheit in Deutschland.

Deutsche Landwirtschaftliche Presse, vol. 35, 1908, p. 832."
1908. SoRAUER. Handbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten, vol. 2, p. 116.

a Reference not verified.
[Cir. 52]

WART DISEASE OF THE POTATO. 11

1908. Spieckermann. Ueber das Vorkoiiimeu von Chr}imphhjctis endohiotica Schilb.

ill Westfalen. Praktische Hliitter fiir Pflanzenbau unci Pfianzenschutz,
vol. 6, October, 1908, p. 113.

1909. Ericksson, J. Hvitr()ta och Krilfta a potatis. Centralanstalten for Jord-

bruksforsok, Flygblad, no. 8, February, 1909.

1909. Grosser. I)er Kartoffelkrebs: Zeitachrift dor Landwirtschaftliche Kammer
fur d. Provinz Schlesien, vol. 13, 1909, p. 614.

1909. GtJssow, II. T. A serious potato disease occurring in Newfoundland. Bul-
letin 63, Department of Agriculture, Central Experiment Farm, Ottawa,
Canada, October, 1909.

1909. Johnson, T. Chri/sophlydis endubiolira Schilb. (potatt) wart or black scab)
and other Chytridiaceaj. The Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin
Society, vol. 12, no. 14, June, 1909.

1909. Kreitz. Mitteilung iiber einige Kartoffel Krankheiten. Illustrierte Land-
wirthschaftliche Zietung, vol. 29, 1909, p. 176.

1909. Percival, JonN. New facts concerning Avarty disease of potato. The Gar-
deners' Chronicle, 3d ser., vol. 46, no. 1179, 1909, p. 79.

1909. Remy, T. Der Hackfruchtbau, vol. 1, Der Kartoffelbau, Berlin, 1909, p. 135.

1909. RiEHM, E. Der Kartoffelkrebs und seine Bekiimpfung in England. Illus-

trierte Landwirthschaftliche Zeitung, vol. 29, 1909, p. 415.

1910. Divers, W. H. Wart disease of potatoes. The Gardeners' Chronicle, vol.

47, 1910, p. 13.

Approv^ed:

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, Felruary 4, 1910.
ICir. -yi\

O

Issuerl Marcli 21, 1910.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 5:].
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

MUTATIVE REVERSIONS IN COTTON.

'^^^ VORK
O. F. COOK. QAROEiN.

•27297 10 1 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1910

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, lJeverly T. GALLOWAr.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, (i. Harold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James K. Jones.
[lir. 53]
2

B. V. l.—rM.

MUTATIVF. R1:VHRSI()NS IN COTTON.

INTRODUCTION.

It is customary for writers on heredity and breeding to look upon
reversions and mutations as rare and exceptional phenomena, but
mutative variations of the cotton plant are of frequent occurrence
and many of them appear to be reversions. Knowledge of the nature,
extent, and causes of such reversions would throw light upon many
problems of breeding and adaptation of varieties, for variations of
this kind appear to be one of the chief factors of deterioration.

Many pronounced variations occur in cotton as sequels of hybrid-
ization and among the diversities aroused by new conditions. Indi-
vidual variations seldom appear to differ from the parent stock by a
single feature, but usually show numerous pecuUar characteristics
outside of the ordinary range of variation of the parental types.
The cotton plant affords an unusually favorable opportunity for the
observation of such facts because so many of its parts are readily
seen and compared.

Chanires of characters are not confined to stocks that have been
recently hybridized. Even in the most uniform varieties, such as
the Triumph Upland cotton of Texas, many individual plants may
show sudden departures from the normal characters of the variety,
especially when the conditions are new or extreme. The nature of
such variations and the frequency with which they occur indicate
that they represent reversions to the earlier diversities of the type that
have been suppressed by selection.'^

Reversion may be defined as the return of ancestral characters to
expression. Plants or animals that differ from their immediate rela-
tives in showing characteristics of remote ancestors are described as
reversions, or "throw-backs." Striped pigs, black lambs, blue
pigeons, red ears of corn, and brown-linted cotton plants that appear
occasionally in pure-bred white varieties may be looked upon as
reversions to the characteristics of colored ancestors. Reversions
may be reckoned as partial if the variant individuals bring into
expression only a few of the ancestral peculiarities and in other
respects continue to resemble the typical members of the breed.

a Local Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. Bulletin 159, Bureau of Plant Industry,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909, p. 20.
[Cir. 53)

4 MUTATIVE EEVERSIONS IN COTTON.

Reversions may be called total or complete when there are changes
of whole series of characters of parent varieties.

REVERSIONS SIMILAR TO MUTATIONS.

Wliether wild species originate by sudden mutative variations or
not, there can be no doubt in the case of the cotton plant that definite
variations occur and that they can give rise to new cultivated varieties.
The great majority of such variations are not preserved because they
are inferior to existing types. In a uniform, big-boUed type of cotton,,
such as the Triumph, many small-boiled individuals with different
habits of growth and other peculiarities may suddenly appear."

In dilute hybrid stocks of Egyptian cotton, with only a small pro-
portion of Upland or Hindi blood, individual plants of apparently
"pure" Upland or Hindi cotton are found, while the other plants of
the same ancestry show only the usual Egyptian characters. If the
Egyptian parentage of these variations were not known it would not
be suspected from any of the characters that are brought into expres-
sion. If the experiments had been conducted on a smaller scale
and only the Upland or the Egyptian type had been familiar, these
changes of chaj^acters might have been looked upon as rare muta-
tions into new species, like those that occur in the garden variety of
the evening primrose studied by Professor De Vries in Holland.

It does not seem probable that the niutative changes of characters
that often occur in cultivated stocks of cotton represent the attain-
ment of new characters, for the characters that come into expression
in this way are commonly found among the more primitive types of
cotton. Even the characters that have received the largest amount
of selective "improvement" from breeders, such as large bolls and
long, strong lint, have been found to exist in equal or greater degree
in related types of cotton that have been cultivated only in tropical
America without any conscious methodical selection by the Indians.

The more degenerate variations of the Upland cotton, with very
small bolls and very shortlint, are inferior to any of the varieties
cultivated in the United States, so that they can not be looked upon
as results of crossing with other varieties, except as crossing may
be supposed to induce reversions. It is not necessar}^ to suppose
that these inferior characters are new, for some of them are closely
paralleled among the very diverse forms shown by the Kekchi and
other primitive Upland types that have been introduced from tropical
America and acclimatized in the United States in the last few years.

Several of these newly introduced varieties also share the same
characters that render the Hindi variations of the Egyptian cotton
so strikingly different from the typical Egyptian plants, such as the

« Local Adjustment of Cotton Varieties, bulletin 159, Bureau of Plant Industry,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909, p. 17.
[Cir. 53]

MUTATIVE REVERSIONS IN COTTON. 5

shorter lobes of the leaves, the i^alor green color, aad the thinner
texture. Two or three of the calyx lobes of the Hindi cotton are
usually drawn out into a long, slender tootii, a peculiarity previously
observed only among the Central American cottons. Mr. Rowland
M. Meade has found that the lobes of the calyx of the Hindi cotton
are sometimes three-toothed, as also occurs in the Rubelzul cotton,
a perennial Upland type from eastern Guatemala with long, pointed,
Egyptian-like bolls. The bolls of the Plindi cotton have a rounded
coiiic form and are abruptly apiculate. The surface is smooth and
even, with the oil glands deeply buried in the tissues, another tendency
shared with several of the Central American Upland cottons."

The agreement of the Hindi with the Central American types of
cotton extends even to the frequent display of two types of foHage
among unacclimatized plants. Both types yield occasionally large,
luxuriant, sterile, or late-maturing plants with deeply channeled
five-Iobed and sev«n-lobed leaves. Smaller and more fertile plants
have the leaves more nearly plane, with only the usual three lobes
regularly develoi)ed. Very vigorous Hindi-like plants often have
the same general appearance as Egyptian-Upland hybrids and may
represent hybrids between the Egyptian cotton and the extreme
form of the Hindi. The large size may be connected with the fact
that characters of both of the parent types are brought into ex-
])ression. No tendency to unusual luxuriance appears in Egyptian-
Upland hybrids that show the characters of only one of the parent
types. The unusual vigor appears to be a physiological phenomenon
in some way connected with the tension or conflict in the expression
of the divergent charactei-s rather than a consequence of sterility.
The abnormal vegetative vigor begins to be manifested in the earlier
stages of growth, before any of the plants have reached bearing age.**

The close similarities of the variant forms of the many different
kinds of cotton may be taken to indicate that ancestral characteristics
are returning to expression. Otherwise it would need to be assumed
that the many different kinds of cotton are engaged in the formation
of closely parallel series of new species. Wliether the cotton varia-
tions be looked ui)on as mutations or n^t, it is equally desirable to
recognize their relation to reversions. It might be as proper to call
them revertive mutations as mutative reversions, except that the
itlea of reversion is older and better established than that of new
species or new characters originating by mutation.

The range oiancestral diversities that may be expected to reappear
in reversions must be learned bv the studv of the wild relatives of

a Origin of the Hindi Cotton. Circular 42, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept.
of Agriculture. 1909.

bThe Vegetative Vigf)r of Hybrids and Mutations. Proceedings, Biological Society
of Wa.shington, vol. 17, 1904, pp. 83-90.
rcir. 53]

b MUTATIVE EEVEESIONS IN COTTON.

our domesticated plants. It is a mistake to think of natural species
as uniform groups of plants that show only one set of characters,
like our carefully selected varieties. Very few of our cultivated
plants have so many wild or unimproved relatives as does the cotton,
to serve as a basis of judgment, regarding ancestral diversities and
reversions.

RELATION OF REVERSION TO COHERENCE OF CHARACTERS.

Complete reversions may be considered as related to a phenomenon
already described as coherence of characters.'' In cotton hybrids
there is a general tendency for the characters derived from the same
ancestor to come into expression in groups or combinations. It sel-
dom or never happens that a single character of one ancestor comes
into full expression in a hybrid; that is, without being accompanied
by the expression of other characters of the same parent. Coherence
of characters appears to have a phj^siological significance. Among
the hybrid plants that are superior to the parent stocks in vigor, fer-
tility, and quality of lint, characters of both of the parental types are
brought into expression in coherent groups. Hybrids that bring the
characters of only one parent to full expression are not superior,
while those that show incongruous combinations of characters are
notabl}^ deficient in fertility. A notable example of this relation
appeared in a field of Jannovitch cotton raised from imported seed at
Somerton, Ariz., in 1909. The plant had the habit of growth, leaves,
and bracts of the Egyptian cotton, but changed suddenly to Hindi
characters in the long-toothed calyx, white flowers, and broadly conic
light-green bolls. At the same time it retained the Egyptian charac-
ters of short stamens and long exserted stigmas. Though having
great vegetative vigor, this plant was quite sterile. The anthers con-
tained pollen, but did not open to shed it. The stigmas were abun-
dantly cross-pollinated by insects, but no ovules developed and not
a single boll matured. *"

VARIATIONS OF DIVERSITY IN THE SAME STOCKS.

The fact that plants with a preponderance of Egyptian ancestry,
such as three-quarters or upward, may show little or no sign of Upland
admixture accords with the general tendency toward coherence in

a Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids. Bulletin 147, Bureau
of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909, p. 16.

f> The empty carpels of this plant showed a further peculiarity nofehitherto observed.
The ridge that marks the middle of the wall of the carpel, the line of dehiscence of the
ripe fruit, gave rise to a series of long slender hairs that projected into the cavity.
Hairs of the same kind were found afterwards in normal plants and may be looked
upon as an additional storm-proof character, since they undoubtedly help to hold the
lint and seeds in place after the carpels have opened.
[Cir. o3]

MUTATIVE REVERSIONS IN COTTON. 7

the expression of cliariicters, but eoliereiice alone would not explain
the further fact that plants of preponderantly Egyptian ancestry
may depart from the Egyptian characteristics and appear as com-
pletely un-Egyptian Upland or Hindi. In stocks where the crossing
upon the Egj^ptian is limited to half-blood U])lands there is a general
reduction of the expression of Upland characteristics as compared
with the crosses of full-blood Upland upon the Egyptians, but such
dilutions do not preclude reversions to complete I^pland forms.

Upland or Hindi characters that remain completelylatent or without
expression in one generation may recover their potency and return
to complete expression in some of the members of the next generation.
One planting of hj'brid seed may show a preponderant resemblance
to one parent, another ])lanting to the other parent. One planting
of a stock of seed may show none of the Hindi or Upland reversions,
while another planting of the same stock of seed or another part of the
same field may show very pronounced examples. Three plantings
of the Jannovitch variety of Egyptian cotton in 1909 showed Hindi
individuals of extreme form, although a large planting of the same
stock of seed in 1908 gave only a few aberrant individuals in which
comparatively slight evidences of Hindi contamination were detected."

A question may still be raised regarding the authenticity of this
extreme example where complete reversions have seemed to take
place, as it were, by wholesale. Although there is no reason to doubt
the equality and general uniformity of the imported Egyptian seM,
it is still possible to imagine that the seed planted in 1908 was of dif-
ferent origin from that grown in 1909, even though .both came from
the same imported stock. Such possibilities as the sinking of the
smooth Hindi seeds to the bottom of the bag, or failure to germinate,
or earl}^ death of the Hindi seedlings have also to be reckoned with,
though the chances that such accidents could afford any complete
explanation of the facts appear very remote. The consistent general
behavior of the Egyptian plants in the different fields and experi-
mental plats and the general scattering of the Hindi individuals in
the plantings of 1909 give no support to the idea that the seed was
different. An absolute determination of the matter will require the
study of more numerous and still larger plantings of seed, mixed with
special thoroughness to avoid the possibility of accidental segregation
of any of the different qualities that may be included.

Kegular field plantings of Egyptian cotton can be made to serve
the purposes of such experiments, but it is desirable to present in
advance the collateral evidence for expecting that reversions will
occur and that they are likely to appear in different numbers and

. «■ A Study of Diversity in Egyptian Cotton. Bulletin 156, Bureau of Plant Industry,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909, pp. 18-21.
[CIr. 53]

8 MUTATIVE REVERSIONS IN COTTON.

degrees in different plantings, even when the seed is of the same stock.
Though breeding is undoubtedly a very important factor in reducing
diversity, it is no less important to ascertain the relations of environ-
ment to the occurrence of reversions. Such differences of behavior
are frequently shown by the reversions of the Upland cotton, and the
irregular variations of the Egyptian cotton appear to be susceptible
to such influences.

Other forms of reversions, both partial and complete, have showTi
relation to differences of environment in experiments with cotton.
Ancestral characters that are prominent in one locality may be
entirely suppressed in another place where some of the same lot of
seed has been planted. Not only the amount or degree of reversion
but also the frequency with which particular characters are brought
into expression is subject to change through differences of external
conditions. The failure of any complete Hindi reversions to appear
in the Jannovitch planting of 1908 does not appear merely arbitrary
or accidental from the point of view of other experiments, but may be
connected with the facts that the seed was sown rather late and that
the plants developed under conditions of abundant moisture and heat
that have shown a very general tendency to bring the extreme
Egyptian characters into expression. Grown under such conditions,
plants that are known to be Upland hybrids usually take on the
complete Egyptian form and show very few Upland characters —
sometimes none at all."

THE HINDI COTTON CONSIDERED AS A REVERSION.

Young plants of the Egyptian cotton share the foliage characters of
the Hindi, including the reddening of the pulvinus, the wrinkled,
swollen cushion where the veins meet, at the base of the leaf. If the
Egyptian plants are kept small and stunted by unfavorable conditions
the resemblance to the Hindi continues longer, so that plants that
finally develop with typical Egyptian characters may be mistaken for
Hindi. Late in the season there is another partial approximation
of the foliage characters, for the Hindi plants generally lose the red
color of the pulvinus that serves as one of the most conspicuous
diagnostic features of the Hindi at early maturity and during the
preceding stage of growth. The general colors of the leaves are also
less distinctive in the latter part of the season, the Egyptian cotton
often appearing somewhat lighter and some of the Hindi plants
becoming darker.

Plants that do not show very distinct Hindi features in their habits
of growth, leaves, bracts, flowers, or bolls may stiU betray Hindi

a Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids. Bulletin 147, Bureau
of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, i'JO'J, pp. 17-23.
[Cir. 53J

MUTATIVK HKVERSIONS IN COTTON. 9

tendencies in their naked seeds and sliort, sparse lint. In many such
eases the petals are of a somewhat lighter yellow than usual, oi' the
purple spot may not be so deeply colored, but paler petals and spots
may occur without any other departure from Egyptian characters.
No one character can be trusted as evidence of the presence of Hindi
tendencies, )ior is there any reason to suppose that a failure to show
Hindi characters in one genei'ation excludes their appearance in an-
other, any more than with thesmall-})()lled and other inferior i-eversions
that appear in Upland varieties. Some of the Hindi characteis,
such as the naked black seed with short, sparse lint confined to one
end, are a feature of many small-boiled reversions that appear in
Upland cotton.

Instead of thinking of the Hindi cotton as a distinct independent
type which has become hybridized recently with the Egyptian, it
may be considered that the Hindi characters merely represent some
of the extremes of variation of the Egyptian. Whether the two
types were originally distinct or not may make little difference with
the present facts. TJiere seems to be no definite evidence of the
independent existence of the Hindi cotton, either as an indigenous
wild plant or as a domesticated variety. It would doubtless be easy
to establish the Hindi cotton as a uniform "pure" stock in the same
way that selection can establish uniform types from other variations
of the Egyptian cotton, but it is a type that w^ould hardly invite
cultivation, even among savages. A pale-flowered tree cotton
witliout a petal spot was described in Egypt by Vesling about 1640,
and Fletcher is inclined to believe that this was the prototype of the
Hindi cotton. The Egyptian cotton itself is supposed to liave been
brought from India to Egypt only about a century ago, but even on
this reckoning the time has certainly been ample for the most complete
intermixture to have taken place.'*

The general absence of intermediate plants may be taken as an
indication that recent interbreeding with Hindi has been avoided
in tlie best of the imported Egyptian stocks, but at least a few indi-
viduals of the extreme Hindi type have been found in all. The
remarkably close similarity of the extreme Hindi plants in all of the
newly imported stocks also supports the idea that such plants rep-
resent complete reversions. It is ver}^ difficult to believe that all
the stocks have h'ad the same opportunities of securing recent inter-
inixtures of pure Hindi seed. The juore pronounced of the Hintli
plants are as uniforin among themselves as the Egyptian plants in
the same stage of acclimatization. Indeed, they appear even more

« See Fletcher, F., "The Origin of the Egyptian Cotton," Cairo Scientific Journal,
vol. 2, no. 26, November, 1908, p. 383.

27297— Cir. 53—10 2

10 MUTATIVE REVERSIONS IX COTTON.

uniform, perhaps as a result of the stiono: contrast between tiiem
and the normal Egyptian plants.

If the Hindi plants stood alone, they would bo identihed at once
as members of a series of Mexican cottons related to our Upland type,
but with definite differences. Some of the varieties contain many
plants that combine the Egyptian with the Hindi characters, plants
tliat may be viewed as ordinary hybrids, but the persistence and
remarkable uniformity of the Hindi type can hardly be understood
except by the analogy of complete reversions to the Upland type
already known in experiments with Egvi^tian-Upland hybrids.

CONTRASTED CHARACTERS OF COTTON REVERSIONS.

Though complete reversion may not have been formally recognized
as a phenomenon of heredity, it is believed that an examination of
related facts will show a very general tendency of reversions to
extreme expression of characters rather than to slight or intermediate
expression. Even when only one character appears to be changed
there is more likely to be a complete change than a partial one.
Uniform, deep-red ears are a much more frequent reversion in corn
than ears that are pale red or that have only a part of the kernels
red. Black lambs are generally black all over, and only very rarely
spotted, except upon the head. This remains true even when black
males are regularly bred Avith wdiite females, as on the elevated
plateaus of Guatemala, where the Indians prefer the black wool.
A few piebald sheep were finally seen in one fiock, but only after
many of tlie mixed flocks had been looked over in vain.

Similarly accentuated contrasts are found between the Egyptian
cotton and the Hindi. The veins of the leaf of the Hindi cotton are
united at the base into a larger and more prominent cushion, or
pulvinus, than in the Egyptian cotton, and the pulvinus of the Hindi
cotton is rendered the more conspicuous by its red color, which is
shared by the upper side of the somewhat swollen end of the petiole,
for about half an inch. In normal Egyptian cotton the pulvinus is
pale green, like the other portions of the veins, or only slightly tinged
with reddish, like the end of the petiole. Under some conditions the
stalks and petioles of the Egyptian cotton take on a bright-red color
like the pulvinus of the Hindi, but in spite of the reddening of most
of the petiole the swollen terminal part and the pulvinus of the
Egyptian leaf remain distinctly paler. Exactly those parts that are
the most promj^tly and deeply reddened in the Hindi plants are per-
sistently paler in the Egyptian.

The stalks and petioles of the Hindi plants may also redden with
age, as in the Egyptian, and when this occurs the contrast of color
is destroyed, for the red of the pulvinus and the swollen end of the

[Cir. 53J

MUTATIVE KEVERSIONS IN COTTON. 11

petiole fades out, so that these parts become paler than the remainder
of the petiole, as in the red-stemmed condition of the Egyptian
cotton. But even on the old Hindi plants the very 3'oung leaves
whose petioles are pale have the puhini red.

The contrast is not limited to the color alone, but is carried over
into the hairy coverings of the same parts. The Hindi cotton, like
the Kekchi and other Central Amei-ican types of Upland cotton, has
the pulvinus and the adjacent reddened part of the petiole naked or
with only a few scattering hairs," even when the rest of the petiole is
densely hairy. In the Egyptian cotton, on the contrary, the petiole
is generally naked, except that hairs are to be found on the small
pale area at the end where the Hindi cotton is naked and red. The
pale-green pulvinus of the Egyptian cotton is also distinctly hairy,
especially on young leaves.

A similar case of completely contrasted characters has been brought
to my attention by Mv. G. N. Collins. Some of the Mexican varieties
of corn have the leaf sheaths almost completely naked, while others
have them almost completely clothed with a coat of fine hairs. The
contrast is strangely accentuated by the fact that the sheaths that
are otherwise naked have a narrow band of hairs along the margins,
while the marginal band is naked in the types that have the hairy
sheaths.

REVERSION IMPLIES CONTINUED TRANSMISSION.

The facts of complete reversion have a practical bearing upon
problems of breeding and acclimatization. They warn ns not to rely
upon the hope of being able to effect a complete elimination of unde-
sirable ancestral characters, in the sense of excluding transmission.
There does not appear to be any direct relation between the visible
expression of characters in a plant and their invisible transmission in the
germ cells. Characters that remain latent in one generation may be-
come patent in another. A stock that appears pure under one set of
conditions may appear in another place to be seriously contaminated.
The latent transmission of an undesirable character does no harm
as long as the latent condition continues, but the return of such a char-
acter to expression may be a serious injury in a crop like the Egj^ptian
cotton, where the uniformity of the fiber is a prime requisite.

Ex]3eriments with cotton do not indicate that tendencies to rever-
sion are limited to particular descendants or to single characters
acting independently, as sometimes inferred from the behavior of
Mendelian hybrids. Though regular Mendelian relations are found in
cotton, the jihonomena of heredit}^ are evidently not limited to the
strictly Mendelian reactions between the characters. Students of
Mendelism usually limit their studies to reactions between varieties

[Cir. 53J

12 MUTATIVE REVERSIONS IX COTTON.

that have been brouglit into a condition of uniform expression of
characters, but otlier kinds of reactions are not less interesting and
important. The uniformity or " breeding true" of a few generations
of individuals does not show that a stock is ' ' pure " ' in the sense em-
ployed by many writers on Mendelism. The idea that the Mendelian
relations of expression determine the "presence'' or "absence" of the
characters is a convenient assumption when the typical Mendelian
behavior appears, but reversions to "latent" characters show that
expression is no complete index of transmission.

The idea that the ancestry of our cultivated plants is to be traced
back to uniform "pure" stocks that transmitted only single sets of
characters finds no warrant in the study of the more primitive t^^pes
and wild relatives of our domesticated species. Diversity of expres-
sion, instead of uniformity, is the rule in nature, and the transmission
of the diverse characteristics does not cease when uniformity of
expression is enforced through selection. Reversions show that the
underlying inheritance of diversity is not completely lost, nor the
power of the ancestral characters to reappear, even after long periods
of suppression.

REVERSIONS INTERFERE WITH MENDELIAN EXPRESSION OF

CHARACTERS.

The tendency to reversion has to be reckoned as a serious obstacle
to the utilization of hybrid varieties unless the external conditions
and the processes of reproduction are under much more complete
control than with an open-fertilized field crop.

Mendel pointed out a veiy useful distinction in showing that two
kinds of combinations of characters are represented among hybrids,
some stable in expression and others unstable. Intermediate char-
acters or reversions that arise from divergent tendencies of expression
may occur with much regularity in the first generation of a cross, but
may afterwards diminish or disappear. Even when the first gener-
ation shows uniformly intermediate characters, the later generations
tend to revert to more complete expressions of the parental characters.
The typical Mendelian relations appear in crosses between strains
that differ by definite tendencies to bring certain characters to full
expression or to leave them without expression, but it does not appear
that tlie analogies of such characters are applicable to all kinds of
plants or to all classes of hybrids.

Some writers on Men(Jelism have supposed that inheritance is
governed by protoplasmic determinants, or "units," that are entirely
separate and independent , so that some of them can be changed with-
out disturbing the others, like changing the letters of a word or the
words of a sentence. Individual words from related languages can

[Cir. 53]

ML'LATIVK HKVERSIOXS IX fOTTDX. 13

often be combined into a hybrid sentence without disturl)ing the
general grammaticid structure, much as "unit characters'' appear
to 1)6 substituted for each other in strictly Mendelian hybrids. In
other cases the words of two languages do not prove to be direct
etjuivalents, but recjuire diirerent grammatical relations. Sentences
can no longer be translated piecemeal, by individual words, but have
to be recast by whole phrases or clauses. Words derived from the
same language tend to keep together in the hybrid sentence, hi the
same way that characters of divei-se parental types hold together in
expression. Hybrids that gave intermediate or combined expression
of Egyptian and Upland charactere hf the early generations have
shown a distinct tendency toward more exclusive expression of
Upland charactei-s in later generations, even when selected for the
expression of Egyptian or intermediate characters.

If the existence of determinant particles or character units is to be
assumed, it is more reasonable to suppose that the expression of the
characters is governed by positional relations among the particles
than by mere presence or absence of particles. The theory of posi-
tional relations of determinants was suggested by Mr. "Walter T.
Swingle, of this Department." It has the advantage of accommodat-
ing a wider range of facts than the Mendelian theory. The establish-
ment of definite positions among the particles w^ould account for con-
ditions of uniformity and for regular ISIendelian ratios of expression,
while mutative reversions and diversified hybrids can be ascribed to
disturbances of the positional relations. Thus the positional theory
admits the transmission of latent characters as a general condition of
inheritance, whereas Mendelian writers have treated latency as an
exceptional phenomenon recjuirmg to be explained by additional
theories.

Mendelian combhiations of charactei-s do not promise to attain
great importance in cotton because of the general tendencies to rever-
sions and correlations of characters that interfere with stable combi-
nations between characters derived from different types. Reversions
transgress the M(nidelian program. They interfere with Men-
delian dominance in the first generation and with Mendelian combi-
nations and segregations of characters in the hxter generations. A
Mendelian combination of the naked seeds of one variety with the
abundant lint of another might be desirable, but naked-seeded hybrids
are prone to revert to sparse lint, so that the yield is not likely to be
maintained. Fuzzy-seeded types are preferred because of the greater
abundance of lint.

" In a paper read at a meeting of the Society for Plant Morphology and Physiology,
entitled "Some Theories of Heredity and of the Origin of Species Considered in Rela-
tion to the Phenomenon of Hybridization." Abstract published in the Botanical
Gazette, vol. 2r,, no. Ill, 1898.
[Cir. .wj

14 MUTATIVE REVERSIONS IN COTTON.

REVERSIONS OF LATER GENERATIONS OF HYBRIDS.

Many attempts have been made to obtain early and prolific Eg^'p-
tian or Sea Island varieties bv crossino; with Upland, and the first
generations (^f such crosses often appear very promising. The dilli-
culty is that the later generations not only revert to the parental
types, but often go farther back, to the condition of remote unim-
proved ancestors. Instead of having longer lint than the Egyptian
parent, as the first generation usually does, the later generations
become inferior even to the Upland parent. Hybrids representing
the fourth and fifth generations, grown at San Antonio, Tex., in the
season of 1909, did not show a single plant with good Eg3'ptian lint,
and very few that were better than ordinary Upland. This extreme
deterioration might be ascribed partly to adverse conditions, but first-
generation hybrids grown under the same conditions produced excel-
lent lint, longer and stronger than the Egyptian parent. These con-
trasts between the different generations show that the hybrids do
not merely fail to fix particular combinations of the parental charac-
ters, but may first exceed the parents and then suffer serious deteriora-
tion. The characters of the lint that have received the most selec-
tion show the most striking deterioration. Such hybrids promise to
have practical value only in the first generations. The problem of
utilization turns upon the possibility of raising commercial quantities
of hybrid seed."

The fact that hybrids of later generations often show charactere
different from those of the first generation has been taken as proof
of the Mendelian theory of separate transmission of contrasted char-
acters. Characters that appear in all of the individuals of the first
generation l)ut not in all of the secontl or later generations have been
ascribed to the presence of two independent Mendelian "factors"
that are supposed to be transmitted separately, and not recombined
in all the members of the later generations, but in only half of them.

This theory would explain why half of the second generation might
fail to show a character that appeared in all of the first generation,
but it gives us no suggestion of the complete disappearance of the
long lint in the later generations of the cotton hybrids. There is no
reason to suppose that the internal "factors" that produce the long
lint in the first generation of a hybrid cease to be transmitted to the
later generations, but there are serious differences in the external
expression of the characters. Factors that influence the expression
of characters have to be considered, not merely the possibilities of
alternative transmission. A character that has been expressed in

" Snppressod and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids. Bulletin 147, Bureau
of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909, p. 15.
[Cir. 53]

MUTATIVE REVERSIONS IN COTTON. 15

intensified form in the first generation may be reduced or suppressed
in later generations.

It may be that more strictly Mendelian reactions might have i)cen
secured if the experiments had been preceded by courses of strict
line breeding, as in many Mendelian investigations, but this would
not insure results of practical value, l)ecause there is no way to enforce
the Mendelian condition of self-feililization infield cultures of cotton.
It is also possible that a course of self-fertilization would have the
effect of more deiinitely fixing the expression of the desirable charac-
ters, and rendei- the later generations less liable to show variations
and reversions. These questions are worthy of careful investigation,
though such physiological efi'ects of fine breeding upon expression
are n(jt taken into account in the Mendelian doctrine of pure germ
cells.

Uniformity is much greater and more easily maintained among
the descendants of an individual mutation than in a hybrid stock.
From the breeding standpoint this greater tendency to uniformity
may be reckoned as the chief difference between the reversions that
occur as mutations and those that are found among hybrids. The
range of variation among the mutations appears to be as great as
among the hybrids, and warrants the expectation that almost any
desirable combination of characters may be found by persistent
search.

The apparent tendency of mutative reversions to come true from
seed suggests another possibihty of making combinations of charac-
ters between diverse types whose hybrids fail to show definite Mende-
lian reactions. Instead of attempting to establish immediate unions
between the characters of such species as the Egyptian and Uplanil
cottons, attention may be given to the occasional nmtative reversions
that appear in dilute hybrid stocks. Such mutations might not have
the special vigor and fertility of first-generation hybrids, but they
might yield more uniform progeny. A stock of Egyptian cotton that
had once been hybridized with Upland might furnish a series of muta-
tive variations more promising for breeding purposes than a stock of
diverse hybrids. The application of this method involves the diffi-
culty of producing and giving careful study to the large number of
reversions that might need to be inspected before a particular com-
bination of characters could be found. Most of the reversions will be
inferior, but an occasional superior type may be expected. Even
among the Hindi-like variations of the Egj^ptian cotton there are
some that are above the average of the Egyptian, in spite of the
extreme inferiority of the hnt characters of the extreme Hindi type.

[Clr. 53]

16 • MUTATIVE Ri:VERS10NS IX COTTON.

AGRICULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF REVERSIONS.

If the Hindi characteristics continue to reassert themselves in the
Egyptian cotton, complete reversion is a less serious ohstacle to com-
mercial uniformity than partial reversion. It is much easier to recog-
nize and destroy the complete Hindi plants than the intermediate
individuals that give only slight expressions of the Hindi character-
istics.

In plantings of the superior Jannovitch and Xubari varieties the
proportion of the complete Hindi reversions has exceeded that of the
plants that show an intermediate or partial expression of the Hindi
characters. This is in notable contrast'with the behavior of a planting
of the older and less improved Ashmuni variety, where a large pro-
portion of the plants show some of the Hindi characters. Whether
these differences should be ascribed to the more careful breeding of
the Jaimovitch and Nubari varieties or to the different conditions of
the fields is not certain. It may be that the intermediate plants
represent new or relativelj^ recent crosses between the Hindi and
Egyptian forms of plants, rather than partial reversions, but the
large numbers of plants that show Hindi seed characters indicate a
very general presence of Hindi tendencies, at least in the Ashmuni
stock. In any case, the recognition of the complete reversions will
assist the careful planter in learning to detect the Hindi characteris-
tics, even in their less conspicuous degrees of expression.

Hybrids and extreme forms of reversions are not the only types of
deterioration that must be guarded against if the need of a high degree
of uniformity is to be met. Many plants that do not depart from the
Egyptian characteristics will be found to fall far below the standards
of an improved variety, either in fertility or in the qualities of the
lint. There is no reason to suppose that uniformity can be main-
tained without continued selection in an}^ field crop grown from seed."

If reversions were to be looked upon as ordinary hybrids like those
that result from recent crossing, it would appear impracticable to
guard the crop from contamination, and hence impossible to obtain a
uniform commercial product. No matter how carefully the fields of
the Egyptian cotton may be isolated, variations may still occur that
can easily be mistaken for hybrids. The difficulty of securing ade-
quate isolation of the Egyptian cotton will be serious enough in any
regions where Upland cotton is grown, but it need not be exaggerated
by the condemnation of stocks that may continue to show reversions
without recent contamination.

The occurrence of reversions in one locality or in one season need
not stand in the way of early return to practical uniformity if an

a Local Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. Bulletin 159 Bureau of Plant Industry,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909, pp. 56-G2.
[Cir. 53]

MUTATIVE REVERSIONS IN COTTON. 17

iuloquate selection is maintained and favorable conditions are pro-
vided. Familiarity with the vegetative characters of the plants will
enable the undesirable reversions to be rogued out before the time of
flowering, so that crossing with such plants may be avoided. Tend-
encies to variation that are shown in the lint and the seeds can be
rejected when the necessar}" selections are made in the fall to secure
liigh-grade seed for the next season's planting. The influence of the
external conditions upon reversions is only one of many indications
that the uniformity of the crop, as well as the yield of fiber, will de-
pend upon cultural methods as well as upon the seed that is planted.

CONCLUSIONS.

The phenomena of reversion in cotton are not confined to the changes
of single characters, but may result in wide departures from parental
types and bring different series of varietal characters into expression.

The return of ancestral characters to expression does not depend
upon recent hybridization, but may be shown in abrupt, mutative
variations of '"pure-bred" stocks that have been selected for the uni-
form expression of a single set of characters.

Reversions may be aroused by new or unfavorable conditions of
environment and may vary in extent and frequency with changes of
external conditions. The uniformity of a stock in one place affords
no assurance that diversity will not reappear in another locaHty.
Diverse characteristics continue to be transmitted and may return
to expression after many generations.

The variations of the different types of cotton have general simi-
larities and may be arranged in parallel series. The general range
of the ancestral diversities of cotton is also to be learned from the
study of wild or unimproved types and from the diversities that in-
terfere \nth the Mendelian expression of characters in hybrids.

The uniformity of the progeny of mutative variations renders them
greatly superior to Iiybrids for breeding purposes. The possibility
of obtaining superior mutative reversions from later generations of
dilute hybrid stocks is worthy of investigation, especially in cases
where desirable Mendelian combinations are not obtained in the earher
generations of hybrids.

The Hindi variations of the Egyptian are similar in their characters
and behavior to some of the reversions that appear in Upland varie-
ties and may prove to be forms of reversion rather than results of
recent contamination with a distinct type of cotton.

The more pronounced forms of reversion in Upland cotton, like the
Hindi variations of the P^^gyptian cotton, are readily distinguished by
vegetative characters, so that they can be rogued out before the time

[Cir. 53]

18

MUTATIVE REVERSIONS IN COTTON. 1

of flowering, to avoid the contamination of the stock by cross-
poUination.

Partial expressions of Hindi and other inferior characters can often
be detected in the hnt and seed, even when not shown in the vegeta-
tive characters of the plants. Such tendencies are to be taken into
account in the annual selection of seed.

It is also of practical importance to distinguish between the Hindi
variations of the Egyptian cotton and the variations that result from
crossing with Upland cotton. If reversions are mistaken for results
of recent hybridization it may appear impossible to guard the Egyp-
tian or other superior types of cotton from Upland contamination,
though there is every reason to believe that distances of a few miles
will afford complete isolation.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, February 2, 1910.

[Cir. 53]

o

Issued March 22, 1910.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 54.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE SUBSTITUTION OF LIMESULPHUR PREPARA-
TIONS FOR BORDEAUX MIXTURE IN THE
TREATMENT OF APPLE DISEASES.

NEW Vo,^K

W. M. SCOTT,

Pathologist in Charge of Orchard-Spraying

Experiments and Demonstrations,

Fruit-Disease Investigations.

29316 — Cir. 54 — 10 Washington : government printing office : i9io

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell.
Editor, J . K . Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

<lCiT. 54]
2

B. P. I.— 552.

THE SUBSTITUTION OF LIME-SULPHUR PREPy\KA-

TIONS FOR BORDEAUX MIXTURE IN THE

TREATMENT OF APPLE DISEASES,"

INTRODUCTION.

In recent years Bordeaux mixture has come into ill favor among
the apple growers on account of its injurious effect upon tlie fruit
and foliage of certain varieties, and there is a growing demand for a
reliable fungicide which can be used for the control of apple diseases
without producing such injury. Bordeaux mixture is undoubtedly
the best all-around fungicide known, and it is unfortunate that the
apple growers have to consider the possibility of giving it up; but
the russeting of the fruit and the burning of the foliage caused by it
are so objectionable that it seems highly desirable, if not necessary,
to adopt a less injurious fungicide even at the risk of a partial sacri-
fice of efficiency in the control of diseases. The subject of Bordeaux
injury has recently been admirably discussed by Prof. U. P. Hedrick,^
of New York, and by Prof. C. S. Crandall,'^ of Illinois, and wnll be
considered only incidentally in this paper.

During the past three years the writer has been working on the
problem of securing a satisfactory substitute for Bordeaux mixture
and not without some success. The self-boiled lime-sulphur wash
which was developed primarily for spraying peach trees has been
found to be an excellent spray for the control of mild cases of apple
diseases and to be entirely harmless to fruit and foliage. The con-
centrated lime-sulphur solutions, both commercial and home pre-
pared, when diluted to contain about 4 pounds of sulphur to 50 gal-

o Acknowledgment is hereby made of th(> hearty cooperation and assistance given
the writer of this paper in his investigations by tlie Strathmore Orchard Company, of
Mount Jackson, Va., and the Elm Springs Orchard f'omj)any, of Fishersvill(\ Va.,
and also by Messrs. M. F. Gilkersoii, of Staunton, Va., and W. S. Ballard, of Crozet,
Va., in whose orchards the experiments and demonstrations were conducted. — G. H.
PowEix, Acting CMrf of Bureau.

b Bulletin 287, New York (Geneva) Agricultural Experiment Station. 1908.

c Bulletin 135, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 1909.

[Cir. .^-.4] 3

4 LIME-SULPHUE PREPARATIONS FOR APPLE DISEASES.

Ions of water have proved to be about as effective in the control of
apple scab and leaf-spot r.s Bordeaux mixture and to be much less
injurious.

Prof. A. B. Cordley,'* in 1908, seems to have been the first to point
out the possibility of dilute lime-sulphur solutions as a substitute for
Bordeaux mixture in the treatment of apple diseases, especially scab.
In an address before the 1907 meeting of the American Pomological
Society, the writer ^ gave results of experiments which he conducted in
Arkansas, showing that a self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture might be
expected at least partially to control bitter-rot and scab. Again in
the Western Fruit Grower of January, 1909 (pp. 5-6), the writer
showed that the commercial lime-sulphur solution registering 32
degrees on the Baume scale, when used at a strength of 1 gallon to
25 gallons of water, would control apple scab on the Winesap about as
well as Bordeaux mixture without materially injuring the fruit or
foliage. In the same issue of the paper just mentioned (pp. 6-7),
Prof. R. Kent Beattie reported the satisfactoiy control of apple scab
by very much stronger solutions of the commercial lime-sulphur — 1 to
11, 1 to 14, and 1 to 17-;7-and he reported no injury whatever to foliage
or fruit.

In 1908 the writer'^ controlled the cherry leaf-spot in Illinois with
the commercial lime-sulphur solution, 1 gallon to 40 gallons of water,
and with the self-boiled lime-sulphur, as well as with Bordeaux mix-
ture. During the same year experiments Avitli the lime-sulphur solu-
tion for apple scab, conducted by the "WTiter '^ in Nebraska and
Arkansas, gave good results, and similar experiments conducted in
New Hampsliire during the same year by Dr. Charles Brooks^ in
cooperation with the writer showed the commercial solution to be
almost as effective against apple scab as Bordeaux mixture.

Mr. Errett Wallace / reports that in experiments which he con-
ducted in New York during 1909 the commercial lime-sulphur solu-
tion at a strength of 1 gallon to 30 gallons of water did not injure
fruit or foliage and was as effective in controlling apple scab as Bor-
deaux mixture, although the disease was not serious in the orchard
treated. Although none of the experiments referred to above were
exhaustive, the evidence thus far points to the lime-sulphur solution
as a valuable substitute for Bordeaux mixture, at least in the treat-
ment of apple scab.

a Rural New Yorker, March 7, 1908, p. 202.
b Proceedings, American Pomological Society, 1907, pp. 39-45.
cCir. 27, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agricultm-e, 1909, pp. 12-15.
dCir. 27, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1909, pp. 15-17.
« 19th and 20th Annual Reports, New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station,
pp. 385-389.

/ Western Fruit Grower, January, 1910, pp. 24-25.
[Cir. 54]

LIME-SULPHUR PREPARATIONS FOR APPLE DISEASES. 5

Experiments conducted by tlie Bureau of Plant Industry during
1909 give further evidence of the value of the lime-sulphur sprays as
fungicides for summer use. These experiments cover a wide range
of conditions, having been conducted in Virginia, Michigan, and
Arkansas. Eleven varieties were treated. Four different brands
of the commercial lime-sulphur solution and a similar home-prepared
solution were tested at various strengths. The commercial brands
registered from 31 to 33 degrees on the hydrometer scale. They
were used alone and in combination with arsenical poisons. This
paper contains a brief discussion of these experiments, with sugges-
tions as to the substitution of lime-sulphur preparations for Bordeaux
mixture in the treatment of apple diseases.

THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREFUL SPRAYING.

The acreage in aj)ple orchards in this countr}" is rapidly increasing,
and in the future the production of apples will imdoubtedly be much
greater than at present. The writer is of the opinion, however, that
there will be no serious overproduction and that there will always be
a good demand for good apples, while the poor stuff so common on
our markets to-day will not pay the expenses of handling. It should
be the aim of every orchardist to produce and market nothing but
first-class fruit, and if he does this he may reasonably expect always
to obtain good returns from his investment.

vSp raying is the one operation above every other orchard practice
which determines the market value of the fruit produced and yet in
many instances it receives the least attention of all the orchard work.
The successful orchardist of the future will be the man who, among
other things, studies the conditions existing on his own farm and
sprays his trees according to the needs of each variety for the control
of the particular troubles which occur in his localit3^ The course of
treatment best suited for the orchards of the Shenandoah Valley of
Virginia may not necessarily give the best results in orchards situ-
ated east of the Blue Ridge in that State, and again the treatment
for certain varieties of apples may be different from that required
for certain other varieties growing in the same localit}^. The course
of treatment should be planned not only with reference to the dis-
eases to be controlled, but also with reference to the probable effect
of the fungicide upon the fruit and foliage of the variety to be treated.
The Bon Davis, for example, is so seriously russeted by applica-
tions of Bordeaux mixture that often most of the fruit sprayed with
this fungicide is rendered second class. In Virginia this variety
does not suffer materially from the attacks of scab, bitter-rot, or
other serious fruit diseases, the leaf-spot which is easily controlled
being its chief fimgous enemy. The Ben Davis in Virginia and in

[Cir. 54]

6 LIME-SULPHUR PREPARATIONS FOR APPLE DISEASES.

other similar situations may therefore be successfully sprayed with a
weak fimgicide which will control the leaf-spot, sooty fungus, and
slight scab infections without injury to the fruit or foliage. The
York Imperial is another variety which has no serious disease of the
fruit, and in addition it is not subject to Bordeaux russet, so common
on the Ben Davis, but the foliage is susceptible to leaf-spot and is
often badly injured by applications of Bordeaux mixture, so that it
is desirable to spray this variety also with a less caustic mixture.

On the other hand, the Yellow Newtown « is seriously subject to
the attacks of bitter-rot and must be treated with a strong fungicide,
such as Bordeaux mixture, for the control of this disease. The fruit
of this variety is susceptible to Bordeaux injury, but since such injury
is produced only by the early applications of the mixture the treat-
ment may be so planned as to avoid it. One of the lime-sulphur
sprays may be used for the first and second sprayings after the petals
fall and Bordeaux mixture for the bitter-rot treatments which come
later in the season. These are some of the finer points to be consid-
ered in connection with spraying, and the orchardist who gives them
due consideration will obtain the best results in the production of
good fruit.

VIRGINIA SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS.

In Virginia during the season of 1909 the writer, with the assist-
ance of Mr. Leslie Pierce, conducted experiments with various lime-
sulphur preparations in comparison with Bordeaux mixture for the
control of apple diseases. The experiments were made on the Yel-
low Newtown, at Crozet; theWinesap, York Imperial, and Ben Davis,
at Fishersville; and the York Imperial and Ben Davis, at Mount

Jackson.

The self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture, the home-boiled lime-sul-
phur solution, and the commercial lime-sulphur solution, as well
as Bordeaux mixture, were used. The self-boiled mixture was used
in two strengths, 8-8-50^ and 10-10-50 and the home-boiled solu-
tion at a strength of 5 pounds of sulphur and 2h pounds of lime
to 50 gallons of water, made by boiling the lime and the sulphur
with a small quantity of water over a fire for forty-five minutes.
The latter is essentially of the same composition as the concentrated
lime-sulphur solution which Prof. John P. Stewart^ described and
which, according to him, can be kept indefinitely. The commercial
lime-sulphur solution was used at the rates of U, If, 2, and 2^ gal-

o Synonym of Albemarle Pippin.

&"\\Tienever formulas for lime-sulphur mixture are mentioned in this paper the first
number shows the number of pounds of lime used, the second the number of pounds
of sulphur, and the last the number of gallons of water.

c Bulletin 92, Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station. 1909.
[Cir. 54]

LIME-SULPHUR PREPARAaiONS FOR APPLE DISEASES. T

Ions to 50 gallons of water. Arsenate of lead at the rate of 2
pounds to 50 gallons was used with the self-boiled mixture, the
liome-boiled solution, and the Bordeaux mixture. The commercial
solution was used with arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 pounds
to 50 gallons, with Paris green at the rate of 6 ounces to 50
gallons, and without any j)oison. In the Mount Jackson orchard
the trees were sprayed: First, as soon as the petals fell; second^
three to four weeks after the petals fell; and third, nine to ten weeks.
after the petals fell. The Fishersville orchard, on account of scab,.,
received an additional application, which was made just before the
trees bloomed. The Crozet orchard received the same treatment as
the Mount Jackson orchard, and on account of bitter-rot a fourth
application three to four weeks after the third.

In the same orchards spraying demonstrations for the control of
insects and diseases were conducted jointly by the Bureau of Ento-
mology and the Bureau of Plant Industry, followmg the schedules
of applications just mentioned, which were prepared by JVIr. A. L.
Quaintance and the writer, the former being responsible for that por-
tion relating to insect control. A discussion of these demonstrations
will not be included in the present paper.

THE EFFECT OF THE SPRAYS ON THE FOLIAGE.

One of the objects of these experiments was to determine the effect
of the several lime-sulphur preparations in combination with arsen-
icals on the foliage of different varieties. Several times at intervals
during the season notes were made on the condition of the foliage
of the trees in the experimental plats. The weather was mostly
cloudy and rainy from early spring until about July 1 , so that the con-
ditions were favorable to the development of spray injury. During;
the latter half of the season, however, practically no rain fell.

In every case, except on the Winesap, where Paris green was used
with the commercial lime-sulphur solutions, the foliage was badly
burned and in some instances the trees sprayed with this combination
lost half of their foliage. The Winesap did not suffer so much injury
from this or any of the other sprays as did the other varieties. This
variety was used in the experiments of the previous year conducted
in Nebraska by the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the fact that the
commercial solution at the rate of 2 gallons to 50 gallons of water and
6 ounces of Paris green caused oidy a slight damage to the foliage
indicated that the combination might be practicable. It is evident,
however, from the Virginia experiments that it is entirely unsafe
to use Paris green with the lime-sulphur sprays.

The commercial lime-sulphur solution at the rate of 1^ gallons to 50
gallons of water and 2 pounds of arsenate of lead injured the foliage

ICir. 54]

S LIME-SULPHUR PREPARATIONS FOR APPLE DISEASES.

only slightl}^ scarcely enough to be noticeable to the casual observer.
At the rate of 2 gallons to 50 gallons of water with arsenate of lead
this preparation injured the foliage considerably, so that a small per-
centage of the leaves dropped off. (See PL I, fig. 1.) Tliis injury
was manifested by a slight scorching around the margins and at the
tips of the leaves, and in some cases by the formation of irregular
l)rown spots. Even here, however, the injury was scarcely more
severe than that caused by 3-3-50 Bordeaux mixture « on the same
varieties. (See PI. I, fig. 2.)

At a strength of 2 to 50 without any poison the commercial solu-
tion injured the foliage slightly more than the same mixture with the
addition of arsenate of lead. The same is true of the 1^ to 50 strength.
The arsenate of lead apparently reduced the caustic properties of the
sulphids, rendering the mixture less injurious to apple foliage. This
is probably due to the fact that a portion of the sulphur is taken out
of solution to combine with the lead, forming lead sulphid and arse-
nate of lime.

The same solution at a strength of 2^ gallons to. 50 gallons of water
w-ith and without arsenate of lead injured the foliage very badly,
causing a partial defoliation of the trees. This is much too strong
for use in the Eastern States, although Professor Beattie,^ of Wash-
ington State, recommended even a stronger solution.

It appears from these tests that 2 gallons of the commercial solution
to 50 gallons of water is the maximum strength that can be used
on apple foliage with any degree of safety, and that U to 50 is much
safer and is about as strong as one should risk in spraying a large

orchard.

The home-boiled solution, containing 5 pounds of sulphur and 2^
pounds of lime to 50 gallons of water, with 2 pounds of arsenate of
lead, caused very little or practically no injury. This is practically
the same as the commercial solution diluted to contain 2 gallons to
50 gallons of water, but the foliage injury caused by the latter was
more conspicuous.

The self-boiled lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead caused no injury
whatever ; in fact, the fohage sprayed with this mixture had a bright-
green, vigorous appearance throughout the season. (See PI. II, fig. 1 .)
The leaves were noticeably larger, the buds were plumper, and the
trees made more growth than those sprayed with the other lime-
sulphur preparations and with Bordeaux mixture.

The Bordeaux mixture caused considerable spotting and yellowing
of the leaves on the York Imperial, Ben Davis, and Yellow Newtown,

o Whenever formulas for Bordeaux mixture are given in this paper, the first numher
indicates the number of pounds cf copper sulphate used; the second, the number of
pounds of stone lime; and the last, the number of gallons of water.

J> Western Fruit Grower, January, 1909. pp. G-7.
[Cir. .54]

Cir. 54, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

j^-'** •?\:/

Fig. 1 .—Ben Davis Trees Sprayed with Commercial Lime-Sulphur '2 to 50i, Showing
Some Leaf Injury. Fishersville, Va., September 29, 1909.

Fig. 2.— a Row of Ben Davis Trees Sprayed with Bordeaux Mixture. Fishersville,

Va., September 29, 1909.

LIME-SULPHUR PREPARATIONS FOR APPLE DISEASES. 9

but very little on the Winesap variety. Some of the injured leaves
dropped from time to time, so that the foliage on many trees was some-
what thinned out toward the end of the season, but the damage could
not be considered very serious.

THE CONTROL OF DISEASES.

In the orchards in Virginia where these experiments were con-
ducted none of the apple diseases except leaf-spot developed to a
serious extent, so that the test was not a severe one. The apple leaf-
spot, so common throughout this State, was entirely controlled by all
the mixtures used. The self-boiled hme-sulphur made the best show-
ing in this connection, because it not only controlled the leaf-spot but
(\\d not injure the foliage, and apparently had a stimulating effect on
the trees. (See PL II.) All tlie lime-sulphur preparations, aswell asthe
Bordeaux mixture, controlled the sooty fungus and an undetermined
"fruit spot" which was common the past season in Virginia. The
weather was so dry after midsummer that bitter-rot did not develop
sufliciently to test the value of the lime-sulphur sprays for its control.

Considerable scab developed on the unsprayed Wines aps in the
Fishersville orchard, so that a pai-tial test of the efficacy of the several
sprays in the control of this disease was afl'orded. Only one strength
(2 to 50) of the commercial lime-sulphur was used on this variety.
Tlie crop from four trees in each of the more important plats was
picked and sorted, and the results are showTi in the following table:

Ta BLE I . — Results of the use of lime-sulphur preparations and Bordeaux mixture with arsen-
icalsin the prevention of scab and codling-moth injury on-Winesap apples in Virginia.

No. of
plat.

Spray niixture used.

Commercial lime-sulphur solution (2 to 'M) and Paris green. ...
Commercial lime-sulphur .solution (2 to M) and arsenate of lead .
Self-boiled lime-sulphur .solution (10-UI-.50) and arsenate of lead .

Bordeau.x mixture (3-3-r)0) and arsenate of lead

Check; not sprayed

Scabby

Fruit injured by

fruit.

codling moth.

Per cent.

Per cent.

0.63

6.90

..">!

1.25

■.i. 75

1.40

2.15

.53

30.27

36.70

It will be seen from this table that the scab was held down to less
'than 1 per cent of the crop l)y the commercial lime-sulphur, to 3f per
cent by self-boiled lime-sulphur, and to about 2 per cent by Bordeaux
mixture, and that 30 per cent of the unsprayed fruit was affected
with the disease. Tliis disease was well controlled by all the mixtures,
but it will be noted that it was not particularly bad on the unsprayed
trees, so that the test could not be considered a severe one. None
of the Winesaps were sprayed with the weaker commercial prepara-
tions nor with the home-boiled lime-sulphur.

[Cir. 54]

10 LIME-SULPHUE PREPARATIONS FOE APPLE DISEASES.

Ill this experiment the conipaiative effect of tlie different mixtures
on the codhng moth was determined, and, as shown in Table I, the com-
bination of lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead controlled this insect
about as well as Bordeaux mixture and arsenate of lead. It seems,
therefore, that the poisonous action of this arsenical is not reduced
])Y combining it with the lime-sulphur preparation.

THE EFFECT OF THE SPRAYS ON THE FRUIT.

In all the orchards treated the fruit sprayed with the several lime-
sulphur mixtures was smoother and more highly colored than that
sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. The Bordeaux mixture russeted
the fruit of the Ben Davis so that it did not have the "finish" required
for fancy apples, and a small percentage of it had to be dis-
carded as culls on account of the roughened appearance due to the
mixture. The Yellow Newtowns were russeted considerably and the
Winesaps only slightly, while the York Imperials showed practically
no russet effect.

The lime-sulphur preparations caused no russeting, or at most
very little where the strongest solutions were used, and the fruit
sprayed with these mixtures was smooth, clean, and well colored.
The difference in color between the fruit sprayed with the Bordeaux
and that sprayed with the several lime-sulphur preparations was
very striking, and this feature alone would make the latter sprays
preferable to the former if other things were equal.

EXPERIMENTS IN MICHIGAN.

Experiments similar to those in Virginia were conducted at Douglas,
Mich., in cooperation with the Bureau of Entomology, and the results
were much the same. The w^ork was done by Mr. R. W. Braucher
under the writer's direction in the orchard of Mr. C. W. Gaylord.
The trees were sprayed just before they bloomed (May 19 and 20),
as soon as the petals fell (June 1 and 2), three weeks later (June 23
and 24), and ten weeks after the petals fell (August 10 and 11).

There were six plats of from 13 to 20 trees each, including the
Wagener, Baldwin, Rhode Island, Roxbury, and Ben Davis varieties.
The commercial hme-sulphur solution, diluted to contain 2 gallons
to 50 gallons of water, without any arsenical, was applied to plat 1 ;
the same solution, with the addition of 6 ounces of Paris green,
was applied to plat 2; and the same solution, with the addition of
2 pounds of arsenate of lead, was used on plat 3. Plat 4 was sprayed
with self-boiled lime-sulphur (10-10-50) and 2 pounds of arsenate
of lead, and plat 5 was sprayed with 3-4-50 Bordeaux mixture
and 2 pounds of arsenate of lead, while plat 6 was left unsprayed.
The plats sprayed with the commercial lime-sulphur solution, espe-

[Cir. 54]

Cir. 54, Bureau of Plant Industry, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II

Mtii^

FiQ. 1.— York Imperial Apple Tree Sprayed with Self-Boiled Lime-Sulphur, Show-
ing Luxuriant Foliage. Fishersville, Va., September 29, 1909.

\*-*i\

FiQ. 2.— Unsprayed York Imperial Apple Trees Almost Defoliated by Leaf-Spot,
Located in the Same Orchard and Photographed at the Same Time as that
Shown in Figure 1 .

LIME-SULPilUK PKEPAKATIONS FOR APPLE DISEASES. 11

cially plat 2, began to sliow considerable foliage injury after the second
application, ami on this account the solution was diluted to contain
oidy 1 gallon in 40 gallons of water for the last two sprayings.

RESULTS OF THE TREATMENT.

Soon after the second application was made, according to
Mr. Braucher's notes, the commercial lime-sulphur plats began to
show foliage injury. Notes made at intervals during the season
show that the foliage was quite badly injured by the lime-sulphur
solution and Paris green combination and that the solution without
an arsenical caused almost as much damage, while the same solution
with arsenate of lead was mucli less injurious. Although the damage
caused by the lime-sulijhur and arsenate of lead combination was
not severe, it was sufhcient to discourage the use of the solution
at the strength of 2 gallons to 50 gallons of water. A strength of
\h gallons to 50 gallons of water, with arsenate of lead, proved to
be practically noninjurious in Virginia and would probably be safe
in Michigan. The self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture with arsenate of
lead caused no damage whatever.

The following table shows the efficiency of the several spray mix-
tures in preventing apple scab on the Wagener variety, as determined
by sorting and counting the fruit from eight trees in each plat:

Table II. — Comparison of results of the use of lime-sulphur sprays with Bordeaux mixture
in the prevention of scab on Wagener apples at Douglas, Mich.

No. of
plat.

Spray iiii.xture used.

Commercial lime-sulphur .solution (2 to 50)

Commercial lime-sulphur solution (2 to .'iO) and (! ounces of Pans green

Commercial lime-sulphur .solution (2 to .')()) and 2 pounds of arsenate of lead.
Self-boiled lime-sulphur solution (lO-10-.JO) and 2 pounds of arsenate of lead .

Bordeau.x mixture (3-4-50; and 2 pounds of arsenate of lead

Check; not sprayed

Scabby
fruit.

Per cent.
0.37
2.23
3.90

19.48
3.43

81.18

As shown in the above table, the scab was held down to an average
of 4.2 per cent of the crop by the commercial lime-sulphur solution,
to 3.43 per cent by the Bordeaux mixture, and to 19.48 per cent by the
self-boiled mixture, while 81 per cent of the unsprayed fruit was
scabby. (See PI. III.) This experiment, as well as those conducted
in Virginia, shows that the lime-sulphur solution is as effective in
preventing apple scab as Bordeaux mixture, while the self-boiled
wash is not so good in this connection. The arsenate of lead in the
commercial lime-sulphur solution held the codling moth down to 1.6
per cent of the crop and in the case of Bordeaux mixture to 5.6 per
cent, thus indicating that the lime-sulphur does not injuriously affect
the poison.

|l-ir. 54J

12 LIME-SULPHUR PREPARATIONS FOR APPLE DISEASES.

EXPERIMENTS IN ARKANSAS.

At Siloam Springs, Ark., during 1909, Messrs. F. W. Faurot and
E. L. Jenne, of the Bureau of Entomology, conducted another set of
experiments under the writer's (Hrections. The results of those
experiments throw considerable doubt on both the efficiency and
safety of the commercial lime-sulphur solution as a summer spray for
apple diseases. The Ben Davis, Shannon, Arkansas, and Elkhorn
varieties were sprayed with several different strengths of the commer-
cial preparation in combination with arsenical poisons. The self-
boiled lime-sulphur solution and the Bordeaux mixture were also
used. The trees were sprayed five times, as follows: (1) As soon as
the petals fell; (2) three weeks later; (3) eight to nine weeks after
the petals fell; (4) two weeks later, and (5) three weeks after the
fourth application.

RESULTS OF THE TREATMENT.

The trees sprayed with commercial lime-sulphur solution diluted
to contain 1 gallon in 30 gallons of water, with the addition of the
usual amount of arsenate of lead, showed very little or practically no
foliage injury after the first and second applications; in fact, according
to notes made on June 30 and July 22, no serious injury followed the
third treatment, which was applied on June 2. After the fifth appli-
(;ation, however, the injury increased rapidly, and at picking time
half of the leaves were on the ground. It seems that the injurious
effect of the mixture was cumulative, the injury being increased
by each application. Three applications would, perhaps, have
resulted in little or no damage, but five sprayings were evidently
more than the trees could stand. Considerable rain fell during May
and June, but the remainder of the season was dry. The trees suf-
fered severely from drought, which apparently exaggerated the spray
injury. On account of the shortage of foliage on the trees a portion
of the fruit was sunburned, but no russeting was caused by the spray.
This sunburning also occurred on the fruit sprayed with Bordeaux
mixture, but to a much less extent.

The commercial lime-sulphur at a strength of 1 to 30 in combina-
tion with Paris green began to burn the foliage soon after the first
application was made, and by midsummer the trees were almost bare.
Arsenite of lime was also used with the 1 to 30 solution, and the
results were disastrous. The foliage was burned to a crisp and the
fruit badly scorched by the first application. Even the new twig
growth was killed to a considerable extent.

The self-boiled lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead caused no injury
to fruit or foliage. The fruit sprayed with Bordeaux mixture was
quite badly russeted and the foliage suffered considerable injury.

[Civ. 54]

Cir. 54, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate III

'^•^^'^»^- ^ -^-t,.**^

FiQ. 1.— Apples Sprayed with Commercial Lime-Sulphur. Scabby Fruit on the

Right.

Fig, 2 —Apples Sprayed with Bordeaux Mixture. Scabby Fruit on the Right.

Fig. 3.— Apples Sprayed with Self-Boiled Lime-Sulphur. Scabby Fruit on the

Right.

Fig. 4.— Unsprayed Apples. Scabby Fruit on the Right.

LIME-SULPHUR PREPARATIONS FOR APPLE DISEASES. 13

The lime-sulphur sprays Tailed to control apple blotch {Phijllosticta
solitaria), which is the most troublesome disease of that section.
About 95 per cent of the unsprayed fruit was aflected with blotch
and about 40 per cent of the fruit sprayed with the self-boiled wash
was so affected. The commercial solution at 1-30 gave only slightly
better results, while Bordeaux mixture almost completely controlled
the cHsease. Bitter-rot {(llomerella rvfomaculans) , though not very
serious in the experimental orchard, was only partially controlled by
any of the lime-sulphur sprays, while Bordeaux mixture held it in
check thoroughly. It seems from the test that the lime-sulphur
preparations are of doubtful value in the control of apple blotch and
bitter-rot; but of course further tests are necessary before final con-
clusions can be reached.

CONCLUSIONS.

The writer feels that the information at hand is not quite sufficient
upon which to base final conclusions and recommendations. It
seems evident, however, that a lime-sulphur preparation in one form
or another is destined, largely, to take the place of Bordeaux mix-
ture in spraying varieties of apples subject to serious injury from
apj)lications of the latter.

A lime-sulphur solution containing, when diluted, about 4 pounds
of sulphur to 50 gallons of water appears at present to be the most
promising preparation. This may be obtained by using the com-
mercial solution at the rate of 1^ gallons to 50 gallons of water, or by
preparing the lime-sulphur solution at home and diluting it so that
each 50 gallons will contain 4 pounds of sulphur. The mixture at
this strength injured apple foliage in Virginia very little, and if these
results could be taken as a reliable guide there need be no hesitancy
in using it; but under difl'erent conditions the results might be differ-
ent, and the matter must still be considered as more or less experi-
mental. A strength of 1\ gallons of the commercial solution may
prove to be sufficient in most cases, and the danger of injury would
then, perhaps, be entirely eliminated.

Our experiments of 1908 and 1909, as well as the published records
of other investigators, show that the lime-sulphur solution is appar-
ently as effective as Bordeaux mixture in the control of apple scab.
Under more severe conditions than those which existed in the exper-
imental orchards the treatment might fail; but at present it is very
promising. Lime-sulphur will control leaf-spot and other minor
troubles, as well as apple scab, but so far it has not proved to be a
satisfactory remedy for apple ])lotch (Phyllosticta) and bitter-rot.
However, the experiments on those two diseases have not been car-
ried far enough to determine what may be expected of it in this con-
nection. In sections where spraying for bitter-rot is required the

[Cir. 54]

14 LIME-SULPHUK PKEPAKATIONS FOR APPLE DISEASES.

lime-sulpliur treatment for scab and leaf-spot could be followed by
applications of Bordeaux mixture for bitter-rot.

The self-boiled lime-sulphur is entirely harmless to apple foliage
and apparently has a stimulating effect, but it is not as effective
against scab as the boiled wash. Our experiments show that it will
rontrol mild cases of scab and will entirely prevent leaf -spot, "fruit-
spot," and the sooty fungus, but in sections where scab is a serious
disease this wash would probably be inefficient. In the Shenandoah
Valley of Virgiriia, where scab rarely occurs except in a mild form,
and under similar conditions elsewhere the self-boiled lime-sulphur
would perhaps be preferable to either the boiled wash or Bordeaux
mixture.

According to the information at hand arsenate of lead is unques-
tionably the poison to use with the lime-sulpliur mixtures. Instead
of increasing the caustic properties of the mixture, as at first feared,
it apparently has the opposite effect to some extent and does not
lose any of its insecticidal value by reason of the combination.

In all the experiments the combination of Paris green and the
lime-sulphur solution proved to be quite injurious to apple foliage,
and in the Arkansas work the combination of arsenite of lime and
lime-sulphur was exceedingl}^ injurious.

According to the results obtained in the Arkansas experiment,
three applications of the commercial solution at a strength of 1
gallon to 30 gallons may be made without material injury to apple
foliage, but after the fourth application the injurious effect becomes
serious, and after the fifth the injury is almost disastrous to both
fruit and foliage. It appears, therefore, that the injury is cumula-
tive and that it is unsafe to make more than three applications, or
four if one is made before the trees bloom.

SUGGESTIONS FOR TREATMENT.

It is at present more difhcult to make satisfactory recommenda-
tions for spraying apple orchards than it has been for years. Until
recently Bordeaux mixture was preeminently the best known fungi-
cide for use on the apple, and it was comparatively easy to outline
a course of orchard spraying for si given locality, but the advent of
new fungicides which, though insufficiently tested, give promise of
doing the good work of Bordeaux mixture without its harmful effects,
makes the problem more difficult until further experiments shall
have shown the exact value of these new preparations. The writer
is of the opinion, however, that the information at hand is sufficient
to warrant making substitutions for Bordeaux mixture under certain
conditions, thus avoiding as much as possible the very undesirable
fruit russeting and foliage injury produced by this fungicide. The
following tentative outlines for the treatment of diseases of different
varieties of apples are suggested:

[Cir. 54 J

LIME-SULPHUR PEiEPARATTONS FOR APPLE DISEASES. 15

On varieties subject to attacks of apple scab, especially in districts
where this disease prevails, use a reliable commercial lime-sulpliur
solution (re«^isterin»]j about 32 dej^rees on the Baume scale) at the
stren<:;th of 1^- gallons to 50 (gallons of water or an equivalent strength
of the home-boiled solution," with 2 pounds of arsenate of lead. Spray
the trees (1) just before they bloom (after the cluster buds open); (2)
as soon as the petals fall; (3) three to four weeks after the petals
fall, and (4) nine to ten weeks after the petals fall. This course of
treatment is intended for (he control of apple scab, codling moth,
leaf-spot, and other minor troubles.

In the treatment of varieties not seriously subject to scab, or in
districts where this disease is not prevalent, tlu> application before the
trees bloom may be omitted, making only three applications in all.

On varieties requiring treatment for bitter-rot, the lime-sulphur
solution and arsenate of lead may be used in the two or three early
sprayings, and Bordeaux mixture (3-4-50) and arsenate of lead in
the applications required for bitter-rot, as follows: About nine weeks
after the petals fall and at intervals of two or three weeks until three
applications shall have been made.

On such varieties as the York Imperial, Grimes, Ben Davis, Gano,
and Wealthy, located in Virginia, West Virginia, jMaryland, and other
similar sections where these varieties suffer veiy little, or not at all,
from attacks of scab, the self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture (8-8-50),
with arsenate of lead, may be used with complete success. Spray
the trees (1) as soon as the petals fall; (2) three to four weeks after
the petals fall, and (3) nine to ten weeks after the petals fall. Tliis
course of treatment wall control the apple leaf-spot, mild cases of
scab, and other minor troubles, as well as the codling moth. The
advantage of this mixture over the boiled solution is that it is abso-
lutely harmless to fruit and foliage, while the use of the latter is
attended with some danger of foliage injury.

After another year's experiments the courses of treatment here
specified will doubtless have to be revised. They are suggested as a
guide in spraying apple orchards until further information on the
comparative value of various sulphur sprays can be obtained.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, Fehruary 7, 1910.

"This solution may be prepared by boiling 16 pounds of sulphur and 8 pounds of
lime with a small quantity of water for about one hour; then strain and add water to
make 200 gallons of spray; or stock solutions may be prepared according to Stewart's
method, as described in Bulletin 92 of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment
Station.

[Cir. 54]

o

Issued March 26, 1910.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 55.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN (MAIZE)

IN EUROPE.

BY

JOHN D. SHANAHAN, ^'""^oeis.

Crop Technologist in Charge,

AND

CLYDE E. LEIGIiTY and EMIL G. BOERNER,

Assistants, Grain Standardization.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1910

[Cir. 55]
2

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, 0. Harold Po-well.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

H. I'. T. ^54.

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN (MAIZE)

IN EUROPE.

INTRODUCTION.
PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS OF t50RN.

Statistics as <i;iv(Mi in the various Yearbooks of tlie De])artmeiit of
Agriculture show that the quantity of corn (maize) produced in the
United States during a period of ten years, from 1898 to 1907, inchi-
sive, was 23,092,986,802 bushels. During the same period there
were shipped out of the counties where it was grown 4,733,298,990
bushels, or 20.5 ])er cent of the production, the remaining 79.5 per
cent presumably being used on the farm or in the counties where it
was grown.

For a corresponding period of ten years beginning July 1, 1898,
and ended June 30, 1908, the domestic exports of corn (corn meal
not included) were 1,060,856,485 bushels, or 4.6 per cent of the
production and 22.4 per cent of the quantity shipped out of the
counties where grown, the quantity shipped out of the producing
counties constituting practically the whole of the possible commerce
in corn of the United States.

THE VALUE OF THE EXPORT TRADE IN CORN.

Corn is, in num})er of bushels, the principal grain that enters into
the export grain trade of the United States. The percentage of corn
that is exported, while but a small proportion of the total production,
is in point of the percentages of the possible commerce in corn, the
number of bushels exported, and the money values involved an
enormous trade, which naturally has an important bearing upon the
present and prospective wealth of the country. The prices that are
obtainable for the corn exported are naturally influencetl to a great
degree by the quality and condition of the corn at the time it is laid
down in foreign countries, and the foreign prices obtainable have in
turn been an influential factor in fixing its domestic values.

EUROPEAN COMPLAINTS.

For several years an increasingly large number of more or less
forcible and persistent representations were made to the Secretary
of Agriculture and other officers of the Federal Government, to the
effect that much of the grain, and especially the corn, that was being
exported from the United States was not being delivered abroad in a

[Cir. 55] 3

4 AMERICAN EXPOET CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

satisfactory condition, that it was not of the quahty represented by
the inspection certificates accompanying the shipments, and that
material injury was in consequence being done to the export grain
trade of the United States.

INVESTIGATIONS BEGUN.

In order to secure definite and rehable inforniation regarding the
condition in which American grain was arriving in European countries,
an investigation was undertaken by the United vStates Department
of Agriculture. As most of the dissatisfaction seemed to arise from
shipments of corn, special attention was given to that grain. Under
instructions from the Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Mr.
Clyde E. Leigh ty, one of the writers of this paper, was engaged upon
the work for a period extending from January 22 to June 30, 1906,
during which time he visited eight of the more important European
grain-receiving ports and made examinations of the corn in thirty-
two ships arriving from the United States.

INVESTIGATIONS CONTINUED.

Continuing the investigations in order to secure additional data
and to verify that already obtained, Mr. Emil G. Boerner, also one of
the writers, was engaged upon the work for two periods, one period
extending from October 21, 1906, to June 15, 1907, and the other
extending from December 20, 1907, to October 30, 1908. During
the first period 88 corn-laden ships were examined at 22 European
ports and during the second period 53 ships containing corn were
examined at 12 European ports, all of the shipments having been
made from the various Atlantic and Gulf ports of the United States.

EUROPEAN CONDITIONS STUDIED.

Under instructions from the Secretary of Agriculture and the Chief
of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Mr. John D. Shanahan, in immedi-
ate charge of the work, was engaged during August, September, and
October, 1908, in reviewing these investigations and studying grain-
trade conditions in Europe, during which time he visited practically
all of the important European grain-importing countries in which
American grain is received and nearly all of the principal grain mar-
kets and grain-receiving ports in those countries.

The results of these investigations are here set forth in a series of
tables and diagrams, together with such conclusions as could be
drawn from and recommendations that were suggested by the work.
It is believed that the information is of a character which, if placed
before the grain industry of the United States, will exert an influence
toward the use of more care in the handling and shipping of corn and
toward placing our export grain business on a more satisfactory and
profitable basis.

[Cir. 55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE. 5

THE RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS.
SUMMARY OF CARGO EXAMINATION.

The tables and diagrams showing the details of the three seasons'
work, collectively, show that a total of 15,077,987 bushels of corn,
all of which was certificated as being either "No. 2 Corn," "No.
2 Corn, Sail Grade," or "Prime (Sail) Mixed Corn" (grades of simi-
lar requirements as to quality and condition) at the different export
points on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States, and for-
warded in 175 steamships, were examined on arrival at the various
European grain-receiving ports; that, as a result of careful examina-
tions and estimates, 1,911,374 bushels, or 12.7 per cent, of that total
quantity were found on arrival to be in a heating or hot condition,
some portions of which were so badly damaged as to be entirely unfit
ft)r feeding purposes. The percentage of heating an«i hot corn varied
in the different cargoes and parcels, 100 per cent heating or hot being
reached in a total of eight cases during the whole of the three seasons.

EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS USED IN TABLES.

The columns headed "Date of loading" in the tables, except where
otherwise specified, show the dates borne on the certificates of inspec-
tion accompan}dng the different shipments, and are consequently
the dates when the loading at the American port was completed.
The columns headed "Days in boat" represent, inmost cases, the
number of days from the date of loading to the date the samples were
drawn in Europe at the time the cargo was being discharged.

The percentages of "Dirt and foreign material" in each case
include all finely broken corn particles that would pass through a
26-gauge 10 by 10 mesh wire sieve, and any other material not corn
which was found in the samples as drawn. Great care was exercised to
obtain samples that would represent the correct average of the dirt
and foreign matter in the grain being sampled, the percentages given
being determined by actual separations and weighings. All of the
samples drawn from the cargoes were placed immediately in air-
tight containers in order to guard against any change in their moisture
content before being tested.

FACTORS CONCERNING WHICH NO INFORMATION WAS AVAILABLE.

Some of the factors concerning which no data were available, and
which no doubt have their own peculiar influence on the condition of
corn in ocean transit, include whether or not fermentation had started
in the corn at the time of loading; the temperature of the atmosphere
and the temperature of the grain at the time of loading; the char-
acter and condition in all cases of other freight loaded next to or on
top of the grain; the treatment to which the grain was subjected
li'ir. noj

6

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE,

after loading, including whether or not the ship's hatches were left
uncovered during rainy, foggy, or damp weather; and the tempera-
tures encountered by the ship en route after the grain was loaded.

AMERICAN CORN CERTIFICATED AS "nO. 2 CORN," "NO. 2 CORN, SAIL
GRADE," OR "prime (sAIl) MIXED CORN " EXAMINED IN EUROPE
DURING FEBRUARY, MARCH, APRIL, AND MAY, 1906.

Table I shows in detail the results of the personal examination of
thirty-four cargoes of corn upon their arrival during February, March,
April, and May, 1906, at eight of the principal European grain-receiv-
ing ports. These thirty-four ships carried an aggregate of 4,354,681
bushels and were loacled on various dates between December 28,
1905, and May 15, 1906, at seven of the principal Atlantic and Gulf
ports of the United States.

Careful examinations and estimates of the corn on board those
ships showed that 526,192 bushels, or 12.1 per cent, were in a heating
or hot condition, 100 per cent heating or hot being reached in two cases.
The length of time the corn was in the vessels varied from thirteen to
forty-nine days. The percentages of dirt and foreign material varied
from 0.3 of 1 per cent to 3.8 per cent. The moisture content of the
cool corn varied from a minimum of 14.4 per cent to a maximum of
19.3 per cent. The percentage of moisture in the heating corn, where
such tests were made, varied from 13.8 to 21 per cent.

Table I.— American corn certificated as "No. 2 Corn,'' "No. 2 Corn, Sail Grade,"
or "Prime {Sail) Mixed Corn," examined in Europe during February, March, April,
and May, 1906, showing the quantity found heating or hot, etc.

C9

No.
1
2

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

n

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Quantity
examined.

Bushels.
94,285
55, 714

111,429

209,829

145,714

51,942

85,714

232,882

150,000

85,714

249, 963

205, 994

222, 754

145,714

166,415

90,000

43,085

302,013

34,285

176,209

147, 040

Quantity found
heating or hot.

Bushels.
6 3,600
1,785

cl,785

d 1,785

e 40, 140

(Slight.)

c788

f 17,865

c4,810

« 56, 000

e7,140

c 2, 500

60

6 900

/ 90, 000

6 c 360

(Slight.)

1,000

6^2,462

Per cent.
3.8
3.2

.0

.9

1.2

77.3

.0

.3

11.9

5.6

22.4

3.5

11.2

.0

.5

100.0

Holds
occu-
pied.

No

.0

.0

.6

1.7

Date of
loading.

1905.
Dec. 28
Dec. 29

1906.
Jan. 4
Jan. 6
Jan. 13
Jan. 15
Jan. 16
Jan. 20
Jan. 23
Jan. 26
Jan. 26
Jan. 29
Jan. 31
Feb. 23
Feb. 23
Feb. 26
Mar. 1
Mar. 6
Mar. 12
Mar. 15
Mar. 30

Days

in
boat.

Dirt and
foreign
matter.

No.

46
49

35
35
31
33
22
28
24
22
32
29
27
19
15
26
14
22
46
19
15

Per cent.
1.6

.8

.4
1.0
2.5
2.2

.9
1.8
2.2
1.4

.8

.6
1.8
2.6
3.2
1.6
3.8
2.4

.3
2.4
2.3

Moisture
in cool
corn. a

Per cent.
16.0
15.5

14.4
14.6
16.7
19.2
16.6
17.2
18.2
18.0
17.9
16.8
17.9
16.8
17.9
17.5
17.5
17.5
15.0
17.9
18.8

Moisture

in heating

corn.

Per cent.

13.8

16.0
18.8

16.0

18.7

18.5

18.1

18.3

a Except where the entire cargo was heating or hot.

6 Near propeller-shaft tunnel only.

c Near engine or boiler room bulkhead only.

d Near shifting boards in one hold. », ,i i, .^i

e General, but worse near engine and boiler room bulkheads.

/ In all places of stowage.

ICir. 55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE. 7

Table I. — American com certificated as "No. 2 Corn," ''No. 2 Corn, Sail Grade,"
or "Prime {Sail) Mixed Corn," examined in Europe during February, March, April,
and May, 1906, showing the quantity found heating or hot, etc. — Continued.

i

Quantity
examined.

Quantity found
heating or hot.

Holds
occu-
pied.

Date of
loading.

Days

in
boat.

Dirt and
foreign
matter.

Moisture
in cool
com.o

Moisture

in heating

corn.

No.
22
23

Bushels.

102, 857

25, 714

25,714

IS,-,, 7.iO

1N2, out

1,S.S, o(>4

102, 412

177,879

as, 571

134,365

102,514

h 25, 733

A 25, 819

Bushels.

6 7,140

2,570

(Slight.)

c37, 150

d 22, 375

d 18,8.56

</463

d 14, 200

9.34,285

<i 106,240

9 24,200

!-25,733

Per cent.

6.9

10.0

.0

20.0

12.3

10.0

. 5

8.0

50.0

79.1

23.6

100.0

.0

No.
2
1
1
4
4
5
2
4
2
3
2
1
1

1906.
Apr. 1
Apr. 3
Apr. 4
Apr. 4
Apr. 5
Apr. 5
Apr. 10
Apr. 12
Apr. 23
Apr. 27
Apr. 28
May 15
May 15

No.
24
24
21
31
26
26
14
21
24
18
28
13
13

Per cent.

3.2

.5

2.7

.7

.9

1.1

2.5

1.3

1.9

2.9

1.2

Per cent.
17.4
19.3
17.8
18.2
17.6
16.8
17.8
16.6
18.7
18.1
16. 4

Per cent.
21.0

24

25

26
27
28
29

19.6
19.2
17.9

30
31
32
33

18.6
18.3
16.3

S4

]

4,354,681

526, 192

12.1

98

a Except where the entire cargo was heating or hot.

6 Near engine or boiler room bulkhead, and near sliifting boards in one hold.

c General, but worse near engine and l)Oiler room bulkheads.

d At top of some holds, but principally near engine and boiler room bulkheads.

e Near propeller-shaft tunnel only.

/ Near engine or boiler room bulkhead only.

g Principally in upper portions of gruiu in all holds.

ft Exammed but no samples secured.

i In all places of stowage.

Figure 1 illustrates the data contained in Table I and shows the
strong tendency in corn to "go out of condition" and heat in ocean
transit as the moisture content is increased.

D£C.

JAA/UARy

££-ff.

AM/PC//

APR/L

.. , . . -^^ 1 — FT 1 ~ 1— — I r

100—

19

I

1

J4<.
J3

"

1
1

90
80

GOl
"%

il

LEGENC

O— O PERCENT MO
O— O •• DAMAGEi

■ 1

1

I

i_

l\

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rr^

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1

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1

I

\

\

;
1

1
1

1 \
I 1

1

i!

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)/

1

/
1

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1

r r~
1 1
1 1

/

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T

CARGO A/OAfe£/?.

Fig. 1. — Diagram showing in chronological order the cargo number of each shipment, the months during
which shipments were made, the percentages of moisture in the corn, and the percentages of corn found
damaged in each cargo on arrival in Europe during the season of 1905-6.

[("ir. r.r>]

8

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

AMERICAN CORN CERTIFICATED AS

"no. 2 CORN," ''no.

2 CORN, SAIL
GRADE," OR "prime (sAIL) MIXED CORN," EXAMINED IN EUROPE
FROM NOVEMBER, 190G, TO MAY, 1907, INCLUSIVE.

Table II shows in detail the results of the personal examination
of eighty-eight cargoes of corn on their arrival during the months
from November, 1906, to May, 1907, inclusive, at the principal
European grain-receiving ports. The eighty-eight cargoes contained
an aggregate of 6,598,351 bushels, of which quantity 1,120,900 bush-
els, or 17 per cent, w^ere found to be in a heating or hot condition.
The cargoes were loaded at the different Atlantic and Gulf ports in
the United States on various dates from October 17, 1906, to May 9,
1907. The corn in forty-five of the cargoes arrived cool throughout.
The corn in forty-three of the cargoes was found to be more or less
heating or hot, 100 per cent heating or hot being reached in five car-
goes aggregating 254,073 bushels.

The length of time that the corn was in the vessels varied from 14
to 58 days. All of the corn which was in the vessels under 16 days
arrived cool. One of the cargoes examined was en route 58 days,
with 60,000 bushels of corn containing 14.4 per cent of moisture, but
sustained no damage. Another cargo carrying 17,142 bushels of
corn containing 16.7 per cent of moisture was en route 56 days and
24.5 per cent of the cargo was found to be heating or hot on arrival.

The moisture content of the cool corn examined on arrival during
the period varied from 12 to 20.6 per cent, an average of 17.1 per
cent. Approximately 2,748,000 bushels, or 50.2 per cent, of the cool
corn contained moisture exceeding 18 per cent. The dirt and for-
eign material, with one exception, varied from 0.2 of 1 per cent to
4.5 per cent. In one cargo, the above exception, one sample analyzed
62.5 per cent of dirt and foreign matter but was representative only
of a considerable quantity of corn that was located just under one of
the hatches of one of the ships.

Table II. — American corn certificated as "No. 2 Corn," "No. 2 Corn, Sail Grade,"
or" Prime {Sail) Mixed Corn" examined in Europe from November, 1906, to May, 1907,
inclusive, showing the quantity found heating or hot, etc.

6

C9

o

Quantity
examined.

Quantity found heat-
ing or hot.

Holds
occu-
pied.

Date of
loading.

Days

in
boat.

Dirt and
foreign
matter.

Moisture
in cool
corn, a

Moisture
in heat-
ing corn.

No.

ini

Bushels.
94, 281
32, 244
Ifi, 270
34, 285
21,400
42, 8r,7
38, 920
f,9. 288
154,285
85,542
35,340

liushcls.

Per cent.
0.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0

No.

2
2
2
4
4

9

1906.
Oct. 17
Oct. 18
b Oct. 19
J- Oct. 24
f> Oct. 29
b Nov. 1
'' Nov. 7
Nov. 12
b Nov. 14
b Nov. 22
b Nov. 22

No.

24

54

c20

(■30

<-39

23

C24

15

cli

''19

<-15

Per cent.

0.7
.6

1.6
.4

4.5
.7
.6
.5
.5
.6

1.0

Per cent.
12.2
12.6
12.3
12.5
12.7
14.1
12.4
12.0
12.4
14.4
14.8

Per cent.

102

ins

in4

inf)

lOfi

107

108

109

110

111

« Except where the entire cargo was heating or hot.
b Date of loading given is the sailing date.
c Days from sailing to discharge.

[Cir. 55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

9

Table II. — American corn certificated as "No. 2 Com,^' "No. 2 Corn, Sail Grade,^'
or "Prime (Sail) Mixed Com" examined in Europe from November, 1906, to May, 1907,
inclusive, showing the quantity found heating or hot, etc. — Continued.

Quantity
examined.

Quantity foimd
heating or hot.

Holds
occu-
pied.

Date of
loading.

Days

in
boat.

Dirt and
foreign
matter.

Moisture
in cool
com. o

Moisture

in heating

corn.

No.
112

Bushels.
17,142
69, 087
17,142
41,647
1,54, 285
42, 846
29,714
,35,849
34, 285
42, 857
71,345
22,000
30, 267
21,600
60,000
18,928
17,142

34,627
60,000

102. 856
34,285
25, 720
77, 142

218,219
106, 785
114,621
10,353
94, 285
17,142
41,000
67, 541

156. 857
85,714

192, 491

180,520

119,280

51,338

25,714

197, 146

111,428

68,571

68, 570

208,062

25,714

197,143

34,285

33,000

223, 660

157,308

2,5,714

17, 142

94,285

148, 100

25,714

17,142

42,285

60,000

8.5, ,563

44, 640

111,428

41,800

Bushels.

1,568

c 2, 600

/600

P 12, 000

c 4, 200

''4,000

f (Slight.)

i 25, 720

!7 1,240

n 10, 431

i 88, 000

<;5ii

1 11,600

'300

••3,802

P 16, 000

'3,066

h 2, 700

''(Slight.)

m 17, 425

5111,428

g ,55, 428

g 59, 000

C175

c2,000

P 20, 000

m 15, 132

*, 33, 8,54

5 25,714

* 16, 300

5 42,285

* 12, 000

* 13, 200
5 44, 640

1 18, 000

Per cent.

0.0

.0

.0

.0

1.0

.0

.0

.0

.0

.0

.0

11.8

2.0

.0

.0

63.4

24.5

.0

.0

3.9

.0

100.0

1.6

,50.6

75.2

.0

4.9

12.3

.0

.0

.4

2.4

18.7

1.6

1.5

.0

.0

.0

8.7

100.0

.0

80.8

28.4

.0

■1

.5.8

60.6

6.8

21.5

100.0

.0

.0

11.0

.0

.0

100.0

20.0

1.5.4

100.0

.0

43.1

No.
1
3
1
2
5
1
2
1
2

1
4
1
1
1
2
1
2

2
2
3
2

1
5
5
4
3
1
3
1
1
3
4
2
5
5
4
3
1
5
4
3
3
5
2
6
1
1
4
5
1
1
3
5
1
1
2
3
3
2
4
1

1906.
Nov. 22
Nov. 24
Nov. 30
Dec. 4
Dec. 5
Dec. 5
Dec. 7
Dec. 12
Dec. 12
Dec. 13
Dec. 17
dDec. 17
''Dec. 18
dDec. 21
Dec. 28
Dee. 29
Dec. 31

1907.
Jan. 1
Jan. 3
Jan. 3
Jan. 8
Jan. 8
Jan. 9
Jan. 11
Jan. 15
Jan. 21
Jan. 23
Jan. 23
Jan. 24
Jan. 25
Jan. 28
Feb. 15
Feb. 19
Feb. 20
Feb. 21
Feb. 23
Feb. 23
Feb. 23
Feb. 23

dFeb. 25
Feb. 26
Feb. 27
Feb. 27
Feb; 28
Mar. 6

d Mar. 8

dMnv. 10
Mar. 11
Mar. 12
Mar. 16
Mar. 16
Mar. 16
Mar. 20
Mar. 20
Mar. 20
Mar. 21
Mar. 25
Mar. 25
Mar. 27
Mar. 27

dMar. 29

No.

44

17

29

23

17

''.32

32

45

''23

23

14

-•18

«20

«15

58

42

56

24
19
33
27
45
17
37
33
19
17
38
30
24
18
31
36
20
25
18
20
24
24
54
26
27
34
«23
20
«19
e29
29
30
29
25
25
22
24
24
41
30
30
35
20
25

Per cent.

.4
1.0

.4
1.5
2.3
1.5

.6
1.0
2.6

.3

.5
1.2
1.6

.9
1.4
1.5
1.3

1.1

.7

.9

.3

.4

.8

.6

1.2

■ 2.7

.4

3.4

2.3

2.2

1.3

62.5

2.2

1.8

.4

1.8

2.4

3.2

2.6

1.6

.8

1.5

1.3

.6

1.6

1.9

3.7

2.0

.2

.7

1.4

.8

.2

Per cent.
12.6
14.5
14.9
14.3
19.2
14.4
16.6
14.9
14.8
16.3
15.1
14.3
15.1
14.6
14.4
14.9
16.7

16.2
19.3
18.4
18.8
14.0
19.4
16.2
16.4
19.0
17.7
16.8
19.2
19.2
18.8
19.7
16.7
19.4
19.5
20.0
19.9
18.5
19.9
19.6
17.3
16.6
17.4
19.2
18.7
20.6
16.0
19.7
16.0
15.6
19.7
19.0
19.4
18.7
19.3
18.4
14.0
14.5
15.6
16.7
14.8

Per cent.

113

114

115

llfi

117

lis

119

120

121

122

123
124

22.4

12.5

12f.

127

128

129

(30

131

132

133
1.34

;■ 18. 6

1.3.5

I,3fi

137

1,38

1.39

140

141

142
143

19.1

144

14.5

146

147

148

149

1.50
1.51

21.1

1,52

153
154
1,55

.*-...

18.0

1,56

1.57

1,58

159
160

23.0

161

162

163

164
165

22.0

166

167

168

1.5

.5

1.5

1.5

.7

169

170

171

172

a Except when entire cargo was heating or hot.

* Days from loading to arrival.

c Near propeller-shaft tunnel only.

d Date of loading given is the sailing date.

« Days from sailing to discharge.

/ Near shifting boards in one hold.

» In all places of stowage. ,

'> Near engine or boiler room bulkhead only.

«■ General, but worse near engine and boiler room bulkheads.

i These figures show the percentage of moisture found in the more severely damaged portions of the cargo.

* Principally In upper portions of grain in all holds.

' Near engine or boiler room bulkhead, and near shifting boards in one hold.
" At top of some holds, but principally near engine and boiler room bulkheads.

27507— Cir. 55—10—2

10

AMEKICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

Table II. — American corn certificated as "No. 2 Corn,^^ "No. 2 Corn, Sail Grade," or
''Prime (Sail) Mixed Corn" examined in Europe from November, 1906, to May, 1907,
inclusive, showing the quantity found heating or hot, etc.- — ^Continued.

1

Quantity-
examined.

(Quantity found
heating or hot.

Holds
occu-
pied.

Date of
loading.

Days
in

boat.

Dirt and
foreign
matter.

Moisture,
in cool
com. a

Moisture

in heating

corn.

No.
173

Bushels.

30, 739

81, 427

85,713

102,8.50

145,713

111,427

30, 000

34, 284

78, 542

103, 357

59,999

115,711

17,142

182, 143

110,322

102,932

Bushels.

6 (Slight.)

(■4,000

<■ 30, 000

fc (Slight.)

6 3,375

b 71, 023

c 42, 857

6 7,050

6 9,000

d 100, 608

c 55, 368

c 22, 700

Per cent.

0.0

.0

.0

.0

.0

3.6

100.0

.0

4.3

68.7

71.4

6.1

52.5

.55.3

50.2

22.1

No.

2
4
3
3
4
4
1
2

.3
2

4
1

4
2

4

1907.
.\pr. 1
Apr. 2
Apr. 4
Apr. 10
Apr. 11
Apr. 12
Apr. 13
Apr. 15
Apr. 17
Apr. 24
Apr. 29
Apr. 30
Apr. 30
May 4
May 8
«May 9

No.
29
21
20
26
20
24
24
29
21
28
16
25
22
19
21
/22

Per cent.
2.1
.4
.5
2.8
4.3
3.6
2.3
.5
2.7
1.4
1.5
2.0
3.4
2.9
2.7
3.6

Per cent.
14.2

18.7
15.1
15.5
15.8
16.2
17.7
19.2
17.6
18.3
17.9
14.3
16.9
17.3
17.3
17.0

Per cent.

174

175

17fi

177

178

179

isn

181

182
18.S

19.8

184

185

186
187
188

22.3
19.2

6,598,3.51

1,120,900

17.0

226

i

■

a Except when entire cargo was heating or hot.

b Principally in upper portions of grain in all holds.

c In all places of stowage.

d General, but worse near engine and boiler room Inilkheads.

« Date of loading given is the sailing date.

/ Days from sailing to discharge.

Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the data contained in Table II and cor-
roborate figure 1 in showing the tendency in corn containing high
percentages of moisture to heat and "go out of condition" in ocean
transit.

g i ' I I I I I I M I I I M I I I M I M I M I M I I I I 1 1 I I I I M I I ■

CARGO A/L/MB£/f.

Fig. 2. — Diagram showing in chronological order the cargo number of each shipment, the months during
which shipments were made, the percentages of moisture in the corn, and the percentages of com found
damaged in each cargo on arrival in I{;urope during the fore part of the season of 1906-7.

[Cir. 55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

11

~/3

CARGO A/C/AfBCR.

Fig. 3.— Diagram showing in chronological order the cargo number of each shipment, the months during
which sliipments were made, the percentages of moisture in the corn, and the percentages of corn found
damaged in each cargo on arrival in Europe during the remainder of the season of 1906-7.

AMERICAN CORN CERTIFICATED AS "nO. 2 CORN," "nO. 2 CORN, SAIL
GRADE," OR "prime (sAIL) MIXED CORN " EXAMINED IN EUROPE
DURING JANUARY, FEBRUARY, MARCH, APRIL, AND MAY, 1908.

Table III shows in detail the results of the personal examination
of fift^'-three cargoes of American corn on their arrival at European
ports during the months from December, 1907, to May, 1908, inclu-
sive. The fifty-three cargoes contained an aggregate of 4,124,955
bushels, of which 264, 2S2 bushels, or 6.4 per ceii^, were found to be
in a heating or hot condition.

The corn was loaded in the United States on various dates from
December 17, 1907, to May 1, 1908. The corn in twenty-four cargoes
arrived in an entirely cool condition throughout, while that in twenty-
nine cargoes was found to be more or less heating or hot, 100 per cent
heating or hot being reached in only one case.

The moisture content of the cool corn in the cargoes varied from
14 to 20 per cent. The dirt and foreign material varied from 0.3 of 1
per cent to 12.3 per cent. Of the total of 264,282 bushels found to be
heating or hot during the period, 177,170 bushels, or 67 per cent,
were located in the holds of the ships next to the engine and boiler
rooms or over the propeller-shaft tunnels. The remaining 86,802

H'ir. ,-,-,]

12

AMEKlCAN EXPORT CORN (mAIZe) IN EUROPE.

bushels, or 32.9 per cent, of the damaged corn were so located as not
to be affected by the heat radiated from the engines and boilers of the
ships.

Table III. — American corn certificated as "No. 2 Corn," "No. 2 Corn, Sail Grade,'' or
"Prime (Sail) Mixed Corn" examined in Europe during January, February, March,
April, and May, 1908, showing the quantity found heating or hot, etc.

03
O

No.

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
21S
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253

Quantity
examined.

Bushels.
18,060
47, 142
88,284
121,143
68, 154
15,867
42,857

42,857

34, 285

38, 571

25, 714

149, 525

18,.452

29, 999

60, 000

265, 704

161,037

138, 206

131,141

75,857

262,462

104,000

100, 325

65,484

.54, 044

1.56, 8.54

60,010

8, .571

102,400

155, .564

So, 714

102, 857

154,282

68. 570
51 , 428

102,857
12,857

145,714
8, .530
60, 107
42,8.57
42, 437
94, 182
47, 142
17,142

68. 571
77,142
81,428

107, 142
25, 714
34, 285
25,714
25,714

Quantity found heat-
ing or hot.

Bushels.

6.360

<-S,900

C900

Per cent.

0.0

.0

.0

2

13! 1

.0

2.1

4,124,955

ii900

(•2,200

f 5 1,500

7 500

/ 28,900

6 400

flOO

/ 11.400

?8,000

6 1,700

e 50, 000

'•2,000

fie, 000

6 8,600

6^2,228

1,000

g200

6 50 t>

''11,280

<• 1,000

ffOOO

6(71,680

(•SOO

<2 1,400

'',34,284

cl7,500

6 (Slight.)

264,282

2.1
.0
.0
.0

1.5

.0

.0

85.8

..2

18.0

.3

.0

.1

4.3

.0

.0

12.2

3.1

31.9

.0

.0

2.0

10.3

10.0

.0

1.4
.0
.0

1.0

1.6
.0
.0
.0
.1
26.6
.0
.0

5.8
.9

2.2

1.0

1.3

.0

100.0

68.1

.0

Holds
occu-
pied.

6.4

No.
1
1
3
4
4
1
2

Date of
loading.

1907.

Dec. 17

Dec. 19

Dec. 21

Dee. 24

Dec. 24

Dec. 24

Dec. 26

1908.

Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.

Jan. 11

Jan. 16

Jan. 17

Jan. 21

Jan. 24

Jan. 27

Jan. 29

Jan. 30

Feb. 3

Feb. 4

Feb. 5

Feb. 5

Feb. 8

Feb. 10

Feb. 11

Feb. 11

Feb. 12

Feb. 13

Feb. 13

Feb. 17

Feb. 20

Feb. 27

Mar. 19

Mar. 21

Mar. 27

Mar. 5

Mar. 5

Mar. 7

Mar. 11

Mar. 12

Mar. 20

Mar. 27

Mar. 27

Mar. 28

Apr. 6

Apr. 13

Apr. 16

Apr. 22
Apr,^ 25
Apr7 30

May 1

Days

in
boat.

137

No.

28
26
24
23
45
23
44

26
27
28
27
29
35
19
46
21
25
21
22
21
23
23
23
23
20
36
24
24
35
22
32
19
23
21
18
25
28
29
55
27
20
45
21
28
28
26
24
27
23
21
21
30
28

Dirt and
foreign
matter.

Per cent.

2.4

.7

■ 2.1

.3

1.4

2.0

.4

1.5

.9

.9

1.1

1.0

.5

.5

1.2

1.4

4.0

2.4

.9

.6

2.0

1.4

.7

.4

.9

1.2

2.2

.3

.9

3.3

1.7

.8

1.0

2.6

2. 2

i'l

.8

.6

.9

3.0

1.6

1.9

.9

3.4

1.9

.9

1.5

.7

3.1

12.3

8.1

2.8

5.9

Moisture
in cool
corn.™

Per cent.
15.0
14.2
16.0
17.2
16.9
1.5.6
16.7

16.4
16.6
18.4
17.8
19.1
15.8
18.7
18.6
18.3
19.5
19.1
18.6
19.6
20.0
17.1
17.2
19.3
18.5
18.9
17.7
19.6
15.3
17.8
16.0
17.0
20.0
17.3
18.4
18.3
17.2
16.2
14.0
16.9
16.4
16.2
15.8
16.9
18.0
17.6
15.9
16.7
16.6
1,5.8
15.8
17.1
1.5.6

Moisture
in heat-
ing corn.

Per cent.

a Except where the entire cargo was heating or hot.

6 Principally in upper portions of grain in all holds.

c Near engine or boiler room bulkhead only.

d Near engine or boiler room bulkhead, and near shifting boards in one hold.

? General, but worse near engine and boiler room bulkheads.

/ At top of some holds, but principally near engine and boiler room bulkheads.

g Near propeller-shaft tunnel only.

28.0

16.5

25.2

26.5
24.4

25.3

23.2

15.0
18.5
20.4

21.8

16.6

18.2

[Cir. 55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) iN EUROPE.

13

Figure 4 illustrates the data eontainetl in Table III with regard to
the moisture content of the corn and the quantities of corn found
heating or hot in the different shipments.

DEC.

JANUARy

FeBRUARy

MAffCH

APR.
-,—, — , — , a 1 1

AfAy
i/OO'

20
19

1

1/7

1

/4

i

-13.

<
c

teee/vD

— P£flCef\/T MO/5rUR£

—o ■■ DAMAGSDCOf!M

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4(

CARGO /VOMBSff.

Fig. 4.— Diagram showing in chronological order the cargo number of each shipment, the months during
which shipments were made, the percentages of moisture in the corn, and the percentages of corn found
damaged in each cargo on arrival in Europe during the season of 1907-S.

SUMMARY OF THE THREE SEASONS' WORK.

Table IV is a summarized statement of the foregoing tables showing
the quantities of corn examined and the quantities and percentages
found heating or hot during fhe three seasons of 1905-6, 1906-7, and
1907-8.

Table IV.— American "No. 2 Corn.;' "No. 2 Corn, Sail Graded' or "Prime (Sail)
Mixed Corn" examined on arrival at European ports durihg 190.5-ii, 1906-7, and
1907-8, showing the quantity found heating or hot.

Year.

1905-C
1900-7
1907-8

Quantity
examined.

Bushels.
4,. 354. 681
0,5f8,351
4,124,955

15,077,987

Quantity found heat-
ing or hot on arrival.

Bushels.

520, 192
1, 120, 900

264,282

1,911,374

Per cent.
12.1
17.0
6.4

12.7

THE EFFECT OF STOWAGE ON CORN EXAMINED DURING THE SEASON

OF 1907-8.

Table V shows the influence of stowage in the ships toward causing
damage in transit to the com examined on arrival in Europe during
the season of 1907-8.

[Cir. ".".]

14 AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

Table V. — The effect of stoumge on corn examined during the season of 1907-8.

Location of heating or hot corn.

In holds adjacent to
engine and boiler
room bulkheads and
shaft tunnels.

Bushels.
177,170

Per cent.
67.0

In holds not adjacent
to engine and boiler
room bulkheads and
shaft tunnels.

Total corn
found heat-
ing or hot.

Btishcls.
86, 802

Per cent.
32.9

Bushels.
263,972

Sea-damaged corn.

Bushels.
310

Per cent.
0.1

COMPARISON OF THE MONTHS IN WHICH THE CORN WAS SHIPPED AND
THE QUANTITIES FOUND HEATING OR HOT ON ARRIVAL.

Table VI shows the quantities of corn examined and the quantities
found heating or hot, arranged according to the months during which
the shipments were made. From this table it will be seen that con-
siderable quantities of the corn shipped during the winter months, as
well as that shipped during the spring months, or during the so-called
"germinating season," arrived in a heating or hot condition. The
highest percentage of heating or hot corn was found in the shipments
made during May. The next highest percentage was found in the
corn shipped during April, while the percentage found heating or hot
in that shipped during March was less than was found in the ship-
ments made during either January or February. The corn examined
which was loaded during October and November was to all appear-
ances "old crop" corn containing low percentages of moisture, none
of which was found "out of condition" or heating.

Table VI. — Comparison of the months in ivhich the corn ivas shipped and the percentages

found heating or hot on arrival.

1905-6.

1906-7.

1907-8.

Total.

Month.

Car-
goes.

Quantity

ex-
amined.

Pro-
por-
tion
found
heat-
ing
or hot.

Car-
goes.

(a)

Quantity

ex-
amined.

Pro-
por-
tion
found
lieat-
Ing
or liot.

Car-
goes.

(o)

Quantity

ex-
amined.

Pro-
por-
tion
found
lieat-
ing
or hot.

Car-
goes.

(a)

Quantity

ex-
amined.

Pro-
por-
tion

found
heat-
ing

or hot.

Bushels.

P.ct.

5
9
14
14
13
17
13
3

Bushels.

198,480

529, 609

622,765

1,004,576

1,491,405

1,359,209

996,910

395,397

P.ct.

0.0

.0

3.4

24.1

18.0

17.9

16. 8

15. 2

Bv.ihels.

P.ct.

5
9
23
38
30
34
30

Bushels.

198.480

529,609

1.174,271

3,927,859

3,374,671

2,755,6C>5

2, 644, 769

472,663

P.ct.
0.0

1

.0

December. .
January —
February . .

Marcli

April

May

2
11

3

5
11

2

149,999

1.751,935

402, 129

702, 632

1,296,434

51,552

3.6

7.6

22.6

.5

20.6
49.9

7
13
14
12

6

1

401,507

1,171,348

1,481,137

093,824

351,425

25,714

2.5
7.2
6. 8
2.0
15.8
.0

3.1
11.7
13.6

9.5
18.6
42.3

a The number of cargoes examined during the month in each case is shown.

[Cir. 55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

15

COMPARISON OF THE LENGTH OF TIME THE CORN WAS IN THE VESSELS
AND THE QUANTITIES FOUND HEATING OR HOT ON ARRIVAL.

Tabic VII shows tlie leiigtli of time the com examined was in the
vessels and the quantities f()un<l in a heating or hot condition. The
table is arranged in periods of 10 days each, with the exceptions of
the first and last periods which are from 13 to 15 days, inclusive, and
from 56 to 58 da3^s, inclusive, respectively. It will be seen in the
totals of this table that of the corn examined during the three years the
percentage that was found heating or hot increased dii-ectly (with
but one exception, which is explained) as the length of time in the
ships increased. The percentages of damage vary from 8.5 per cent
in the first period to 42.5 per cent for the period from 46 to 55 days.

Tahi,k y 1 1 .---Coiti fxiriunn of the. length of time the corn urns in the ve.tsels a ml the qaantities

found hedtiny or hot on arrival.

Number of days In boat—

Year.

13 to 15.

10 to 25.

2

i to 3.j.

Quantity
examined.

Quantity found
lieating or liot.

Quantity
examined.

Quantity found
lieatingor liot.

Quantity
examined.

Quantity found
heating "or liot.

1905-0....

1900-7

1907-8....

BusheU.
510,504
a 351, 804

Busheh.
29.918

P.ct.

5.9

.0

.0

Bushels.

1,480.4(;4
3,035,0.38
2,099,014

Bushels.
188, 170
341,443
107,902

P.ct.

12.7

9.4

4.0

Bushels.
2, 179. 429
1,790,808
1.047,109

BusheU.

302,719

445,793

33,800

P.ct.
13.9

24.8
3.2

862,368

29,918

3.5

7,814,510

637,515

8.2

5,023,346

782,312

15.6

Number of days in boat—

Year.

36 to 45.

46 to 55.

56 to 58.

Quantity,
examined.

(Quantity found
heating"or hot.

Quantity
examined.

Quantity
heating

foimd
or liot.

Quantity
examined.

Quantity found
heating or hot.

1905-0

190(t-7

1907-8....

Bushels.

593,827
310,302

Bushels.

218,036
71.080

P.ct.

0.0

36.7

22.9

Bushels,
b 184, 284
143,072
08,530

Bushels.

5,. 385

111,428

51,500

P.ct.

2.9

77.

75.3

Bushels.

<■ 77, 142

Bushels.

4,200

P. ct.

0.0

5.4

.0

904,129

289, 116

32.0

396,486

168,313

42.5

77,142

4,200

5.4

a Average moisture of tliis corn 13.3 per cent; range 12 to 15.1 per cent.

6 Average moisture of this corn 15.7 per cent; range 15 to 16 per cent.

pTwoeargoes only .containing 14.0 and 10.7 per cent moisture; the fonner contained no heating or Iiot corn

See cargoes Nos. 120 and 128 in Table II .

COMPARISON OF THE PERCENTAGES OF MOISTURE IN THE CORN AND
THE QUANTITIES OF CORN FOUND HEATING OR HOT ON ARRIVAL.

Table VIII show^s the corn examined arranged in divisions of 2
per cent of moisture, from 12 to 14 per cent, 14.1 to 16 per cent, and
16.1 to 18 per cent, and a division of from 18.1 per cent to 20.6 per
cent moisture, respectively, and the quantity found heating or hot
in each division.

[Clr. .5.^.1

16

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

In this table it will be seen that the percentage of corn found
heating or hot on arrival increased with but few exceptions as the
moisture content increased. The exceptions being almost wholly-
due to most favorable shipping conditions, which materially reduced
the percentage of damage in the corn containing from 18.1 to 20.6 per
cent of moisture.

Table VIII. — Comparison of the percentages of moisture in the corn and the percentages
of corn found heating or hot on arrival in Europe.

1905-6.

1906-7.

1907-8.

Total.

Moisture content, a

Quantity
examined.

Pro-
por-
tion
found
heat-
ing
or hot.

Quantity
examined.

Pro-
por-
tion

found
heat-
ing

or hot.

Quantity
examined.

Pro-
por-
tion

found
heat-
ing

or hot.

Quantity
examined.

Pro-
por-
tion
found
heat-
ing
or hot.

Per cent.
12 to 14

Bushels, b

P.ct.

Bushels.
563,835
1,340,090
1,946,142
2, 748, 184

P.ct.
'•6.7
10.7
33.2
10.6

Bushels.
8,530
735,813
1,474,590

P.ct.
0.0
6.3
4.1

Bushels.
572,365
2,581,445
6,454,9.37
5,417,588

P.ct.
6.6

14.1 to 16

505,542

3,034,205

763,382

1.4

8.3

31.5

7.7

16.1 to 18

14.9

18.1 to 20. 6

1,906,022 1 8.2

12.8

1

a According to tests made of the cool corn in each cargo, except in cases where all the corn was heating
or hot.

6 Except cargoes Nos. 33 and 34.

c This corn contained 14 per cent of moisture and was only slightly heating and not discolored, a condition
known in Europe as "dry heat."

COMPARISON OF THE MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE CORN AND THE NUMBER
OF CARGOES CONTAINING HEATING OR HOT CORN ON ARRIVAL.

Table IX shows the number of cargoes examined and found to
contain heating or hot corn on arrival arranged according to different
percentages of moisture and the percentage of the cargoes found to
contain heating or hot corn.

Table IX.— Comparison of the moisture content of the corn and the number and percentage
of cargoes containing heating or hot corn on arrival.

Car-
goes
ex-
am-
ined. a

Range of moisture content (cool corn).

Year.

12 to 14 per cent.

14.1 to 16 per
cent.

16.1 to 18 per
cent.

18.1 to 20.6 per
cent.

Car-
goes
ex-
am-
ined.

Cargoes

containing

heating or

hot corn.

Car-
goes
ex-
am-
ined.

Cargoes
containing
heating or

hot corn.

Car-
goes
ex-
am-
ined.

Cargoes

containing

heating or

hot corn.

Car-
goes
ex-
am-
ined.

Cargoes
containing
heating or

hot corn.

1905-6

No.
32
88
53

No.

11

1

No.

2

P.ct.

0.0

18.2

.0

No.
5

25
13

No.
3
9
4

P.ct.
60.0
36.0
30.8

No.
20
22
22

No.
17
17
13

P. ct.
85.0
77.3
59.1

No^

7

30

17

No.

7

615

612

P.ct.
100.

1906-7

50.0

1907-8

70.6

173

12

2

16.7

43

16

37.2

64

47

73.4

54

34

63.0

o Except cargoes Nos. 33 and 34.

6 Winter shipments from northern ports in most cases.

[Cir. 55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN (mAIZe) IN EUROPE.

17

THE C0R;>^ examined IN EI^ROPE GRADED ACCORDING TO GRADE
MOISTURE LIMITS OF THE GRAIN DEALERS' NATIONAL ASSOCIATION.

The Grain Dealers' National Association at its annual convention
held at St. Louis, Mo., in October, 1908, adopted rules and specifi-
cations for commercial grain grades and recommended tliat they be
adopted for general use in the grain business. These rules limited
the percentages of moisture to be allowed in the different grades of
corn as follows: "No. 1 Corn," 15 per cent; "No. 2 Corn," 16 per
cent; "No. 3 Corn," 19 per cent; and "No. 4 Corn," 22 per cent,
these grades to include cool corn only.

Table X shows the corn examined arranged in grades according to
its moisture content as tested in Europe and according to the limits
of moisture fixed for each grade by the association rules. From
this table it will be seen that according to those rules 2,815,795
bushels, or 18.7 per cent, of the corn examined and that was shipped
as "No. 2" or equivalent grades would have been graded "No. 2"
or better; that 7,528,941 bushels, or 50.1 per cent, would have been
graded "No. 3;" that 2,796,058 bushels, or 18.6 per cent, would
have been graded "No. 4;" and that 1,885,641 bushels, or 12.7 per
cent, would have been graded "Sample," on account of being heating
or hot. Had the heating or hot corn in the shipments arrived cool
it would have been classed among the other grades, as in that case
it is believed none of the corn would have shown moisture contents
of more than 20.6 per cent, the highest percentage of moisture found
in any of the cool corn.

Table X. — American corn certificated as "No. 2" or equivalent grades examined in
Europe a arranged in grades according to the moisture limits of the rules adopted by the
Grain Dealers' National Association at St. Louis, Mo., in October, 1908.

Mois-
ture
lim-
it.

1905-6.

1906-7.

1907-8.

Total.

Grade.

•a

§

o

Quantity
examined.

o

03
O

Quantity
examined.

1

Quantity
examined.

1

Quantity
examined.

Number 1 . . .
Numlier 2. . .
Number 3. . .
Number 4. . .
Samples

P.ct.
15

16
19
22

No.
3
2

25
2

27

Bushels.
353, 758
144,614

3, 2()9, 352

34,946

500, 459

P.ct.
8.2
3.4

76.0

.8
11.6

No.

1
32
20
43

Bushels.
1, 274, 207
44S, 294
1,9.56,034
1,798,916
1,120,900

P.ct.
19.3
6.8
29.6
27.3
17.0

No.

3

10

32

8
28

Bushels.

73, 732

521,190

2,303,555
962, 196
264, 282

P.ct.

1.8
12.6
55.9
23.3

6.4

No.
34
20
89
30
98

Bushels.
1,701,697
1,114,098

7,528,941
2, 796, 058
1,885,641

P.ct.
11.3
7.4
50.1
18.6
12 6

a Cargoes Nos. 33 and 34 not included.

i> The numlier of cargoes in wliich the different grades were represented.

c Includes only corn found heating or liol.

ARTIFICIALLY DRIED CORN.

Several cargoes that had been shipped as " artificiall}' dried " corn

were examined. This corn was certificated as No. 2 or equivalent

grades and the data relating thereto are included in the tables

and diagrams. Various terms in addition to the grades were used in

27507— Cir. 55—10 3

18 AMEEICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

the certificates of inspection accompanying these shipments to indi-
cate that the corn had been artificially dried. During the season
1907-8, 1,299,075 busliels of such corn were examined on arrival
and 54,314 bushels, or 4.1 per cent, were found to be in a heating
condition.

None of this so-called ''dried" corn which arrived cool showed a
moisture content of less than 15.2 per cent, wliile some of the cool
corn contained as high as 19.4 per cent of moisture, and the corn
found heating in the various cargoes was quite evenly distributed
from that containing the lowest to that containing the highest per-
centage of moisture, showing that the partial drying of corn con-
taining high percentages of moisture so disturbs conditions as to
cause it to be generally unsafe for ocean shipment.

THE GRADES OF " STEAMER," AND " NO. 3 CORN."

Aside from the better grades of corn heretofore considered consid-
erable quantities of the lower grades of "Steamer" and "No. 3
Corn" were examined, but the data relating thereto are not included
in the tables or diagrams.

Of this corn 51,428 bushels in two cargoes, which were loaded and
shipped in January and February, 1908, and the voyages of which
consumed 17 and 20 days, respectively, showed a moisture content
ranging from 19.2 to 22.5 per cent, an average of 19.8 per cent.
The corn was stowed in holds free and away from boiler or engine
room heat, and no heating or hot corn was found in either cargo.

HEAT-DAMAGED CORN ARTIFICIALLY DRIED.

Several shipments or parcels, amounting in all to 79,847 busliels of
badly discolored heat-damaged corn, sometimes known as "ma-
hogany," which had been artificially dried before shipping, w^ere also
examined in Europe. These shipments bore certificates as "rejected
corn," "dried," and the data relating thereto are not included in
the tables and diagrams. The moisture content of this corn varied
from 13.2 to 17.4 per cent. Such corn is used almost entirely for
distilling purposes on the continent of Europe.

EXPORT CARGOES OF WHEAT.

Several cargoes of wheat which were exported from the Atlantic
and Gulf ports of the United States were also examined on arrival in
Europe, and many complaints, some of which were verified, accom-
panied by samples and data, were submitted to the writers. These
complaints were largely centered about shipments of hard winter
wheat from the Gulf ports, which were, in some cases, received in
Europe in a badly heating and damaged condition, due to an excess

[Clr. 55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE. 19

amount of moisture in the grain at the time of shipment. In other
cases the cargoes arrived cool, but the wheat contained hirge per-
centages of (himaged kernels caused by the wheat having been
heated before shipment.

Other complaints of American wheat shipments brought to the
notice of the writers had relation to the relatively poor quality and
dirty condition of deliveries of No. 1 Northern Spring wheat; to
deliveries of semihard wheat, mixtures of soft and hard wheats, and
entirely soft red winter wheats upon hard winter wheat purchases;
to deliveries of <lamp, smutt}", and heat-damaged durum wheat upon
purchases of No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 Durum wheat; and to deliveries
of wheat containing considerable quantities of wild garlic on pur-
chases of No. 2 Soft Red Winter wheat.

OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.
FACTORS AFFECTING GENERAL CONDITIONS.

THE MOISTURE CONTENT OF "nO. 2 CORN " AND "MIXED CORN."

The rules and specifications defining the grades of ''No. 2 Corn"
and "Mixed Corn" (the latter being used almost exclusively by one
export market) of both the interior and export grain markets of the
United States definitely require that corn of those grades shall be
"sound" and "dry," and the addition of the terms "Sail Grade" or
"Prime Sail" are used upon the inspection certificates of some export
markets to emphasize the factor of dryness, yet the cool corn which
bore certificates of those grades and w^as examined in Europe con-
tained on arrival all the way from 12 to 20.6 per cent moisture.

So far as these investigations have progressed, it is not thought
possible under ordinary conditions of ocean transportation for corn
or other grain, confined as it is in the holds of the ships, to take on
moisture from the air, as wdieat from semiarid regions is said to do
when otherwise transported to more humid regions, especially when
the moisture content of the grain as shipped is high.
• *

HOW CHANGES IN MOISTURE CONTENT MAY TAKE PLACE ON BOARD SHIP.

There are two means b}^ which the moisture content in any part
or the whole of a ship's corn cargo may be increased during transit:
(1) The transfer of moisture by air currents caused by changes in
temperature; and (2) by chemical changes within the corn kernel.

As to the first means, corn containing excessive moisture and
situated so the moisture can escape when subjected to heat will give
off moisture and become drier. The moisture thus given ofT in a
ship's hold, in case the temjieratures in the hold are not uniform,
fijids its way to the usual air space above the corn and under the

[Cir. 55]

20 AMEKICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE,

deck, passing thence as water to other parts of the hold, where it
condenses on the cooler corn, the cooler deck, and the sides of the
ship. This process, augmented as time goes on by the second means,
may increase considerably the moisture content of the corn in some
portions of the hold or cargo.

The second means by which the moisture content of the corn may
be increased is by changes in the chemical composition of the kernel,
the effect of which is more evident in corn that is heating badly.
Conditions of temperature and moisture may be favorable in some
part of a cargo for fermentation to begin and continue with more or
less vigor. The heat generated in this process is gradually trans-
mitted to the surrounding portions, starting and increasing fer-
mentation, which decomposes the grain and liberates its water of
composition, thus increasing the amount of moisture in some por-
tions or in the whole cargo, if conditions are not disturbed, without
any addition whatever of moisture from outside sources.

From these causes the corn in many of the ships examined was
found to be damp and heating at the top, while that beneath was
cool, and the iron decks and sides of the ships were found to be quite
wet with the condensed moisture from the heating corn.

THE "germinating SEASON."

In the grain trade the ''germinating season," so called, is under-
stood to be a special season of the year during which grain is cus-
tomarily planted in the ground. The limits of this season are not
very clearly defined, but it is generally understood to extend from
about the middle of March to the middle of June. It is generally
believed that there is a natural and inherent tendency in grain to
germinate during that season, and that the heating of grain in storage
and in transit during those months is due primarily to this tendency.

From the nature of the damage usually found in corn in a heating
or hot condition in storage or in ships in transit there seems to be
good reason for doubting that the germinative processes are respon-
sible for the damage, as such corn does not usuall}^ appear to have
germinated. Sprouted corn was occasionally found in the cargoes
examined, but only at the top of the bulk, where considerable addi-
tional moisture had been supplied, either through condensation, as
described elsewhere, or from outside sources.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY TO GERMINATION.

In order that coin or any of the grains may germinate there must
be present: (1) Air or oxygen; (2) heat; and (3) moisture. If one
or more of these are absent germination will not take place, but if
all are present at the same time and in sufficient quantities and the

[Cir. 55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE. 21

germ of the grain be alive, germination will take place regardless of
the time, the place, or the season of the year.

There can be no doubt that the same conditions of temperature and
moisture that favor germination or the active growth of the germ of
the grain are favorable also to the growth of molds and bacteria, as
well as the production and action of certain ferments which have the
power of changing the composition of the grain kernels, and which in
their action produce heat sufficient to cause the heating of the grain.

There is too little known of the great subject of fermentation in
nature to enable more to be said than that some kind of fermentation
does frequently take place in bulk grain and that this is the principal
danger to wliich damp grain in storage or in transit is exposed.

SHIPMENTS OF " WINTER-SHELLED " CORN.

In the Northern Hemisphere during the spring months the proper
combination of the elements favorable to the production and action
of ferments is more hkely to exist than during the other seasons of
the year. The fact that the corn shipped for export during the early
spring months of the past several years has been mostly "winter-
shelled" corn, which still retained a relatively large percentage of its
moisture and in which fermentation had frec^uently begun before
shipment, and the further fact that much damage has been sustained
through the shipment of such corn is what undoubtedly originated
and what has perpetuated the idea of a "germinating season."

Corn in which fermentation has begun need not necessarily be hot
or even perceptibly heating, but the action is usually indicated by a
pecuhar faintly sour odor present. The presence of this odor should
serve as a warning to the shipper or handler of corn, because corn in
which the odor is present soon becomes hot if not frequenth" and
thoroughly ventilated, more especially if its moisture content is high.

THE IMPORTANCE OF MOISTURE CONTENT IN CORN IN OCEAN TRANSIT.

These investigations have led to the conclusion, which is beheved
to have been clearly demonstrated in the tables and diagrams,
that the moisture content of corn, and of other grains as well, is the
primary factor determming their capacity to carry safely in ocean
transit without deterioration, and the importance of this factor has
been emphasized throughout the work. Corn in which the moisture
content is sufficiently low will carr}^ safely under ordinary conditions
of ocean transit for any reasonable length of time during any season
of the year, no matter where it is stowed in the vessel, while corn con-
taining a high moisture content is constantly in danger of heating at
any time ow:mg to a variety of contributing causes.

It has been shown that although somewhat drier corn was shipped
to Europe during the spring months, its moisture content was still not

[Cir. 55]

22 AMEEICAN EXPOET CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

sufficiently low in many cases to enable the corn to carry safely at
the naturally increased temperatures encountered en route.

Thoroughly air-dried corn contains about 12 per cent of moisture.
Such corn may be shipped for export at any time under ordmary
conditions with little or no danger from heating in transit, and this
is practically true also of corn containing up to 14 per cent of mois-
ture, provided fermentation has not started in such corn."

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR SHIPPING DAMP CORN.

The fact that certain lots of corn contain high percentages of mois-
ture does not necessarily mean that they will not stand ocean ship-
ment safely. The voyage may be short, the air temperature at the
time of loading and durmg the voyage may be low, no disturbing
mfluence such as heat radiated from the ship's boilers may be en-
countered, and the corn kept practically in cold storage. Under such
most favorable conditions a high percentage of moisture may often
be safely carried in corn. Cargoes of such corn are often landed upon
the quays in Europe in a perfectly cool (cold, in fact) condition,
which corn upon bemg exposed to warmer atmospheric conditions
soon "goes out of condition" and becomes hot and unfit for reship-
ment via the waterways of Europe, as is required of much of the grain
received abroad.

THE EFFECT OF HIGH AND LOW MOISTURE CONTENTS.

When corn goes out of condition, the effect of its relative moisture
content immediately becomes evident. Corn with a low moisture
content requires a much longer time to reach that stage designated as
"hot" or to become discolored or "damaged" by the process of heat-
ing than com with a high moisture content, while corn with a high
moisture content will heat, become discolored, and lose weight by
evaporation quickly, and the processes of deterioration are accelerated
with each additional per cent of moisture much more rapidly than
the proportionate increase in the moisture content.

TMien corn of a low moisture content is found m a heating condi-
tion, it can ordmarily be restored to its original condition with but a
slight amount of handling and ventilating and udthout much, if any,
loss in value through discoloration, while corn with a high moisture
content, when heating in any considerable bulk, quicldy becomes
badly discolored and damaged and is ^nth great difficult}^ and a
great amount of handling restored to a cool condition, and then only
with more or less damage to its quality and a corresponding loss in
value.

a None of the corn examined in Europe which contained less than 14 per cent of
moisture was found in a heating condition, excepting in cases where moisture had
been expelled through the heating processes, regardless of its location in the ships.
[Cir. .55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN (mAIZE) IN EUROPE. 23

THE MOISTURE CONTENT OF CORN FROM ARGENTINA.

With respect to its moisture content, the corn received in Europe
from Argentina upi)oars to have an advantage over corn from the
United States, notwithstancHng that it must cross the equator and
the Toriid Zone in transit to Europe. A number of tests of Argen-
tine corn showed moisture contents ranging from 12.2 to 15.5 per
cent. The corn witli the higher moisture content frecpiently arrived
in a heating condition but was restored to condition, without much
or any change from its original appearance and color, with but little
handling and ventilating.

THE DIRT AND FOREIGN MATTER IN CORN.

During the process of loading grain into the hold of a ship, the
finely broken particles of corn, dirt, and foreign matter t^nd to collect
and remain directly beneath the hatches, the whole kernels shifting
and rolling much more readily than the broken particles and dirt.
Owing to this tendency large amounts of dirt and finely broken corn
were frequently found immediately beneath the hatches of the ships
examined, and heating and moldy corn was also frequently found
in those localities. The heating processes were undoubtedly aided
by these collections of fuier matter, especially when found in contact
with damp shifting boards or other cargo intioduced into the hold in
a dai'^'o or wet condition.

THE STOWAGE OF EXPORT GRAIN IN SHIPS.

Practically all of the grain that is exported to Europe from the
Atlantic and Gulf ports of the United States is carried in bulk, with
the exception of small quantities placed in sacks, which is used in
trimming cargo in order to prevent the bulk grain from shifting with
the rolhng and pitching of the ship. When a ship carries a full cargo
each hold is, of course, filled or nearly filled with grain, but when
grain forms only a portion of the cargo one or more holds are some-
times filled with grain only and the remaining holds contain other
freight, while in other cases the grain is distributed along the bottom
of the ship, each hold containing about the same depth of grain, m
wiiich cases other cargo is stowed on the top of the grain.

THE STOWAGE OF DRY AXD DAMP CORN.

"When the com is thoroughly air dried it is not a matter of great
importance where or how it is stowed, so hmg as it does not come into
contact with sea water, green or wet shifting boards, or damp or wet
freight, such as cotton that has been exposed to rain before being
loaded, wet lumber, etc.

[Cir. 5.5]

24 AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

Wliere the shipments of corn contained a percentage of moisture
much above that of thoroughly air-dried com it was found in a large
percentage of the holds examined that at least some of the corn was
heating, and in some cases that all of it was in that condition.

In many cases the damage was confined to the com at the top of
the cargo, where the grain was loaded under and came in contact with
damp cotton, copper, or other heavy or wet freight, and where the
corn was located against wet shifting boards or along the sides of
the ship, where condensation had taken place, while in other cases
the heating grain was apparently protected from boiler heat and had
no other freight loaded upon it.

THE HEAT RADIATED FROM THE SHIP's BOILERS AND ENGINES.

Where the heating occurred, the temperature as well as the degree
of damage in the corn was not uniform in the damaged portions.
When the damaged corn w^as located in that section of the ship con-
tiguous to the boiler and engine room bulkheads, to the propeller-
shaft tunnels, or in the coal-bunker holds, as it was in the greatest
number of cases, the greatest heat and the most severe damage were
usually found nearest to those bulkheads and shaft tunnels, and less
heat and a less degree of damage the farther the distance from them.
The usual situation in such cases is indicated in figure 5.

THE LENGTH OF VOYAGE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON CORN.

The length of voyage of grain steamships from Argentina to Europe
averages about thirty-five days, from the American Atlantic ports
about thirteen days, and from ports on the Gulf of ]\Iexico about
twenty days.

The available information and data regarding the length of voy-
age of the cargoes examined in Europe seem to warrant the con-
clusion that if corn when loaded into ships is sound and dry, the
length of the voyage has little or no effect upon its condition, but when
it is shipped with a high moisture content and is stowed in such a
way as to be subjected to heat from the inside of the ship or is shipped
during the warm seasons of the year when it is subjected to con-
siderable heat from the outside atmosphere, the length of the voyage
is a very important factor, especially if the heating begins early in
the voyage, in which case the heat is gradually difl'used with each
succeeding day and a higher temperature is developed in the com
already heating. Thus with each succeeding day more of the sound
corn begins to heat and the com already heating becomes more
severely damaged.

[Cir. 55]

AMEKICAX EXPORT COEN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

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[Cir. 55]

26 AMEEICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

A DESIRABLE ARRANGEMENT IN GRAIN-CARRYING SHIPS.

The danger of grain, and especially corn, going out of condition
or heating when loaded against the unprotected boiler and engine
room bulkheads antl over the unprotected or nonventilated propeller-
shaft tunnels of grain-carrying ships has led to the construction in
many such ships of second or false bulkheads, so placed as to form
air spaces of from 12 to 18 inches between the bulkheads of the cargo
holds and those of the engine and boiler rooms, and the installation
of ventilators for the propeller-shaft tunnels, the air spaces formed
by the false bulkheads being also provided with ventilators extend-
ing through the decks on the port and starboard sides of the ships.

This arrangement tends to keep the superheated bulkheads, with
which the grain would otherwise come in contact, and the shaft-
tininel coverings in a reasonably cool condition by allowing the heat
to escape. Ships arranged in this manner, and especially when the
additional bulkheads and the shaft-tunnel coverings are further
protected by a plank sheathing next to the cargo, are very desirable
ships for carrying grain or any other perishable cargo that may be
affected by high temperatures. This arrangement is illustrated in
figure 6.

FORMS OF GRAIN CONTRACTS.

In a general way, and so far as they affect the quality of the grain
bought or sold, there are four forms of contract upon wliich grain is
purchased in Europe from the United States, as follows: (1) That it be
of fair average C{uality of the season's shipments at the time and place
of shipment; (2) that it be equal to a sealed sample (agreed upon) at
the time and place of shipment; (3) that an ofhcial certificate of in-
spection be final as to quality; and (4) American rye terms, wliich
last form provides that the seller shall guarantee the condition of the
grain on arrival in Europe, "sliip or sea" damage excepted, differences
arising out of the contract, if any, to be arbitrated in Europe.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OP CONTRACTS.

B}' far the greatest portion of the export grain business of the
Atlantic and Gulf ports of the United States is done upon the basis of
the third contract or ''certificate of inspection final" terms, because
the American exporter has heretoTore generally refused to sell grain
for export upon any other terms. On the other hand, the European
importer has found this contract advantageous, in that resales in
'Europe to small dealers and consumers have heretofore been more
easily negotiated than was the case with grain bought upon the basis
of any of the other contracts.

Under the terms of the tliird contract the purchaser has no recourse
other than to accept the American inspection certificate as repre-

. [Cir. r^n]

AMEEICAN EXPOET CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE. 27

senting the quality "of grain purchased and to assume all risks of
deterioration in transit. Therefore, the greater portion of the corn
exported is purchased as "No. 2 Corn" and "Mixed Corn," because
those grades are presumed to be of a quality that may be expected to
carry in transit with reasonable safety from deterioration. The louver
grades are very Httle dealt in, principally because of the presumably
greater risk from deterioration in transit.

The sale of grain upon any of the other contracts than that of the
' ' inspection certificate final " terms places the American exporter at a
disadvantage, because by their terms all differences are required
to be arbitrated in Europe. They also place the European importer
at a disadvantage because, first, he is necessarily obliged to pure-' ass
at a liigher price to cover the added risk assumed by the exporter and,
second, unless the purchase is made for his own use or consumption
it involves reselling in Europe at a relatively higher pr :e upon samples
or special representations as to the quality of the grain, a process
which makes the marketing of the grain cumbersome and undesirable
from the standpoint of grain-trade practices.

THE EFFECT OF UNSATISFACTORY DELIVERIES OF AMERICAN GRAIN.

European interest in the condition of grain, and especially the
condition of corn, in the United States, as well as in the cargoes of
such grain arriving in Europe, is very keen, and the means of dissemi-
nating information is good. Information to the effect that the corn
is in poor condition or that one or more cargoes have arrived in
Europe in a damaged condition has been known to cause a consider-
able apprehension among the importers, resulting in sufficiently
reduced bids to cover the presumably greater risk in purchasing and in
some cases the avoidance for long periods at a time by some importers
of purchases of corn from the United States, in favor of corn from
other countries in which the moisture content is generally not so
high, their risk in handling consequently not so great, and which may
generally be purchased upon European terms or upon a basis of
arbitration in Europe of any differences arising out of the transactions.

AMERICAN CORN PREFERRED.

Generally the American Dent corn, "Flat maize," as it is known in
Europe, is preferred to the corn from most of the other corn-exporting
countries, because better results are said to have been obtamed from
its use when it is received in good condition. This is especially true
with the distilling interests, which use large quantities of com and are
said frequently to pay large premiums for American corn when it is
not plentiful on the European markets.

Prominent grain merchants of nearly all of the grain markets of
the grain-importing countries of Europe were questioned regarding

ICir. .55]

28 AMEEICAN EXPORT CORN (mAIZe) IN EUROPE.

the relative prices that should be obtainable for American corn, as
compared with the prices obtainable for corn from other exporting
countries under equal and normal market conditions, provided the
American corn was delivered in Europe in equally good condition as
that from other countries.

In Great Britain the consensus of opinion as expressed was that
American corn would bring at least 1 shilhng per quarter (equal to 2.8
cents per bushel) more, although some merchants maintained that it
would be worth from IJ to 2 shillings per cpiarter more; while in
France, Germany, and the Netherlands the invariable answer was
that American corn under such conditions would command at least
5 per cent higher prices than the corn from Argentina and most other
corn-exporting countries.

LONDON CORN (mAIZE) PRICES.

Observations from time to time during the past several years of the
various European market reports have indicated that the prices quoted
for American corn upon those markets were often lower and fluctuated
at times to a greater degree than seemed reasonable or than was the
case with the prices quoted for corn from most other corn-exporting
countries.

Table XI shows, in addition to the average of the monthly prices
quoted for " No. 2 Corn " at Chicago in cents per bushel, the average of
the prices (ex granary) for American corn, compared with the average
of the prices for corn from other exporting countries quoted ' ' off stands,
Mark Lane, London, as reported each Monday by the :Mark Lane Ex-
press in shillings and pence per quarter of 480 pounds of corn, for a
period of six years, extending from July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1908,
these quotations being reduced to equivalents in. cents per bushel.
The Chicago prices shown in the table are based upon the average of
the high and low prices for each month, and the London prices are
based upon the average of the high and low prices for each week as
quoted. That is to say, that the prices shown were obtained by aver-
aging the highest price and the lowest price quoted for the period in
each case. In the London prices quoted the range for any one week
in the prices for the corn of any individual country seldom exceeded
1 shilling per quarter, but the range was more often 6 pence to 1 shil-
ling per c{uarter.

This method does not, of course, give the average prices obtained
or that were obtainable as considered from the standpoint of the num-
ber of bushels bought or sold, but so far as data are available it shows
the average of values per unit of measure for the indicated limited
periods, and the prices shown are comparable upon that basis only.

The table is divided into periods of three months, the number of
weeks the corn of the various countries was quoted as being on the

[Cir. 55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN (mAIZE) IN EUROPE, 29

market at one and the same time during each three-month period being
shown, together with the average price quoted for the corn of each
country for each period. From this table it will be seen that the aver-
age of the prices quoted for American corn for 301 weeks of the whole
period of six years was 66.13 cents per bushel; that for 288 weeks of
the whole period the average of the prices quoted for corn from
Argentina was 65.9 cents per bushel; wliile for another 288 weeks of
the period the average of the prices quoted for Russian corn was
69.55 cents per bushel.

American, Argentine, and Russian corn were quoted as ha\'ing been
on the market 275 of the same weeks during the whole period, and
the averages of those quotations are as follows: American, 66.16
cents; Argentine, 65.75 cents, and Russian, 69.54 cents per bushel,
respectively.

Based upon the average prices shown for each three-month period
and the number of weeks the corn of the various countries was quoted
as having been on the market during each of those periods, Ameri-
can corn was quoted at an average of 8.82 cents per bushel above the
average quotations for all corn on the market at the same time during
the period ended September 30, 1902, and 2.79 cents per bushel above
the average of quotations for all corn on the market at the same
time during the period ended December 30, 1902.

During the two following periods, ended March 31 and June 30,
1903, the averages for American corn were, respectively, 3.86 cents and
4.73 cents per bushel below the averages of the quotations for all corn
on the market at the same time during those periods. By referring
to the periods ended March 31 and June 30, 1905, it will be seen that
the averages of the quotations for American corn were below the aver-
ages of quotations for all corn for those periods, 9.63 cents and 9.28
cents p^r bushel, respectively, and during the period ended March
31, 1906, the average of the quotations for American corn reached
11.8 cents per bushel below the avenge of the quotations for all corn
on the market during that peiiod. Since July 1, 1906, the prices as
shown have been more favorable to the American corn.

Based upon the London prices quoted for all corn on the market
during the whole period of six years, and considered b}^ the number
of weeks the corn of each country was quoted during the period.^ the
average of the quotations for American corn was 1.42 cents per bushel
below the average of the prices quoted for the corn of all countries on
the market for the whole periotl.

Based upon the prices quoted for all corn on the market for the
288 weeks previously referred to out of a total of 301 weeks, the
prices quoted for Argentine corn averaged 1.69 cents per bushel below
and for another 288 weeks Russian corn averaged 2.05 cents per
bushel above the averages of the prices quoted foi the corn of all coun-
tries for a like number of the saiiie weeks.

[Cir. 55 J

30

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

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O WW

c3 c g

w "^

•- » 2

£«a

P o.o

^ P,P<
Sa>S

a I- 5-
Sag

.•-t 3 "^
O (9 C3

a '^ i!

o^

cj aj ®

C8 tuoM

£22

_o ca cs

t" "w S

S » a

.O w

Moo

.So a

i; a e3
3 CP o

w S S

^ tH kt

■3 -2 -2

. a> <B
>- o o

n 0) aj
3 b£ 60

a C3 03
, t. t.

o C> (U

J= !> >

13 « «

[Cir. r,->]

32 AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

LONDON CORN PRICES FOR FRAGMENTARY PERIODS.

Table XII is supplementary to Table XI and compares the prices
quoted at London for American corn and those quoted for corn of
other corn-exporting countries, especially corn from Bulgaria, Turkey,
India, and North and South Africa, when the corn of tlie latter coun-
tries was on the market for fragmentary parts of the periods shown in
the prececUng table and was therefore not comparable in that table.

The data shown in this table were derived from the same sources,
and the results were obtained through the same processes as were
those in the preceding table. The quotations shown for American,
Argentine, and Russian corn are necessarily duphcated, but those for
the other countries shown are not.

The table shows the averages of the quotations for a total of 69
weeks, during 29 weeks of which the quotations for American corn
averaged above and during 40 weeks of which those for American
corn averaged below the average of all quotations for the respective
periods, showing a total average for the whole period of 69 weeks of
3.07 cents per bushel below the average of quotations for all corn
shown.

Quotations for "Cinquantina" corn have been omitted from these
tables. This corn is similar to the pop corns of the United States, is
composed of small, hard, and flinty kernels, is very nnich prized,
especially in Great Britain, for feeding to poultry and pheasants,
and usually brings much higher prices than corn of the ordinary •
commercial classes.

CORN PRODUCTION, EXPORTS AND DOMESTIC VALUES.

With regard to the economic factors whicli influence corn prices,
those of supply and demand naturally occupy a prominent place and
in order to enable the reader to weigh those factors and without
attempting to draw elaborate conclusions therefrom, the following
diagram and tables, which deal with, the production, exports, and
domestic values of corn, are inserted.

Figure 7 is a diagram showing the production of corn, in 10 million
bushels, in the United States, the exports of corn (including corn
meal), in 1 million bushels, from the United States, and the average
of the high and low prices of December "No. 2 Corn" at Chicago, in
cents per bushel, each year for forty years, from 1868 to 1907, inclu-
sive.

The diagram shows the enormous general increase in the produc-
tion of corn in the United States during the past forty years, the
curves of export following the curves of production with remarkable
fidelity up to the je&r 1896. During the years from 1896 to 1900,
inclusive, the exports reached the highest points shown for the whole

[Cir. 55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

33

period. From 1901 to 1907, inclusive, or (luriii<,^ the last seven years
of the period, the exports compared with the jjrodiiction show a re-
markable proportionate decrease in the foreign corn trade.

The curves of export com})ared with the curves of price show prior
to 1902, where the exports of any one year reached 50 million bushels
or more, that the average Chicago December price, on the basis before
mentioned, was 40 cents per bushel or below, with the following excep-
tions: During 1875, 50 million bushels were exported at 43 cents per
bushel; during 1876, 72^ million bushels at 41^ cents; during 1877, 87

i

i5

5

Pi

S2

!2

5

0)

SP

300

£90

280

S70

S60

2S0

S40-

230

sso

210
200
/90

leo

170
160

/so
Ufa

130

/ao
no

100
30

ao

70
60
50
40
30
20
10

COftN P/fOOi/CTYO/V //V /Ofl^/U/OA/ B(/S.

COKA/ cxpo/fTS f.^s/i/. wcwoeoj w

/ M/LLW/V BUS»eLS.

AI7effAG£ C HIGH A/VO LOIV PRIC£S Of

DECEMBCft /I/O 2 COf/V AT CHICAGO.

Fig. 7.— Diagram showing the production of corn, in 10 million bushels, in the United States, the exports
of corn (including corn meal), in 1 million bushels, from the United States, and the average of the high
and low prices of December "No. 2 Com" at Chicago, in cents per bushel, each year for forty years, from
1868 to 1907, inclusive.

million bushels at 46 cents; during 1879, 99imillionbushelsat 41 J cents,
and during 1891 there were exported 76^ million bushels at 49 cents
per bushel. From 1902 to 1907, inclusive, or during the last five j^ears
of the period, the exports each year have exceeded 50 million bushels
and the December price has remained above 40 cents per bushel.
The largest quantity exported at the highest December price during
any one year for the whole period \vas during 1905 when 119 million
bushels were exported at an average Chicago December price of 46^
cents per bushel.

[Clr. 55]

34

AMEKICAN EXPOET CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

CORN PRODUCTION IN EXPORTING COUNTRIES.

Table XIII shows the percentages of the world's corn crops pro-
duced in the five principal corn-exporting countries of the world each
year for a period of ten years, from 1898 to 1907, inclusive. During
the whole period these countries together produced an average by
years of 83.4 per cent, while the United States alone produced an
average of 75.18 per cent of the world's corn crops. Argentina stands
next to the United States in the production of corn and in showing the
most substantial increase in the quantity produced.

Table XIII. — Percentages of the world's crops of corn produced in the five principal corn-
exporting countries during the years from 1898 to 1907, inclusive.

Country.

1898.

1899.

1900.

1901.

1902.

1903.

1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

.Vverage.

United States

Argentina

P.ct.

71.71
2.09
1.71
3.80
1.42

P.ct.

76.29

2.42

1.13

1.02

.73

P.ct.

75.37

2.01

1. 22

3^04

.64

P.ct.

64.34

4.18

2.87
4.94
1.06

P.ct.

79.20

2.63

1.51

2.13

.56

P.ct.
73.17

4.82

1.63

2.60

.75

P.ct.

79.35

5.63

.83

.64

.41

P.ct.

78.49

4.08

.96

1.71

.57

P.ct.

75. 32

5.01

1.82

3.37

.51

P.ct.

78.55

2.17

1.54

1.74

.36

Per cent.

75.18
3.50

European Russia...
Roumania. .

1.52
2.50

Bulgaria

.70

80.73

81.59

82.28

77.39

86.03

82.97

86.86

85.81

86.03

84.36

83.40

PERCENTAGES OF CORN CROPS EXPORTED FROM EXPORTING

COUNTRIES.

Table XIV shows the percentage of the corn crops exported from
the five principal corn-exporting countries of the world each year for
a period of ten years, from 1898 to 1907, inclusive. From this table
it will be seen that an average, considered by years, of more than one-
half of the corn produced in Argentina and more than one-half of
that produced in European Russia was exported from those coun-
tries during the period; that more than one-third of the crops of Rou-
mania and Bulgaria w^as exported; while the exports from the United
States for the same period amounted to only 4.86 per cent of the pro-
duction, the exports from the United States showing a gradual reduc-
tion in the percentage of the yearly exports. In considering this
table, however, it must be remembered that the statistics relating to
the United States are based upon a year beginning July 1, while those
relating to the other countries shown are based upon the calendar
year, and also that the crops in Argentina ripen and are exported
practically six months before those of the other countries shown.

LCir. 55]

AMERICAN EXPOET CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

35

Table XIY .—Percentages of the corn crops of the five principal coni-ex porting countries
that were exported during the years from 1898 to 1907, inclusive.

Country.

1898.

1899.

1900.

1901.

1902.

1903.

1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

Average.

rnitod States a

Ar^on t ilia

P.ct.
9.20
50.41
62.33
43. 28
13.82

P.ct.

10.25
60. 39
59. 69
84. 50
30.25

P.ct.

8. 60
50.49
35.87
20. 09

8.89

P.ct.

1.84

44. 30

28. 01
39. 09
39.52

P.ct.

3. 05
55. 89
91.18
62. 83
43.54

P.ct.
2.59
55. 61
50. 24
38. 72
22. 28

P.ct.

3.(;5

55. 48
71.88
92. 04
76.49

P.ct.

4.43
02. 19
22.11

2.43
19.69

P.ct.

2.94
54.39
14.01
18.24
27.03

P.ct.

2.07
70. 03
75. 86
20. 16
86. 62

Per cent.
4.86
56.52

European Russia. . .

Rourr.ania

Htilnaria

51.12
42.14
36.81

a E .xports from the United States are for the year beginning July 1 : from the other countries for the calen-
dar year specified.

THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN CORN.

Table XV shows the percentages of the total international trade in
corn represented by the exports of the five principal corn-exporting
countries each 3^ear for a period of eight 3^ears, from 1901 to 1907, inclu-
sive. The deductions were made from a table of exports, which, to-
gether w4th a table of imports, is published in the Yearbook of the
Department of Agriculture under the caption "International Trade
in Corn and Corn Meal." It is not claimed that the figures given in
those tables are exact, but that they represent substantially the inter-
national corn trade of the world.

On the basis of this table it will be seen that for the whole period
the five countries shown supplied an average of 92.1 per cent
of the total international trade in corn; that the United States and
Argentina each supplied an average of more than one-third of that
trade. It will also be seen that from 1901 to 1905, inclusive, the per-
centages supplied by the United States increased rapidly and that
since the latter year those percentages decreased almost as rapidly,
while the percentages supplied liy Argentina show a rapid and sub-
stantial increase from the beginning of the period.

T.\blp: XX. — The percentages of total international trade in corn represented by exports of
the five principal corn-exporting countries during the years from 1901 to 1907, inclusive.

Country.

1901.

1902.

1903.

1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

Average.

United States

\rgentina -

Per cent.
17.38
27.19
11.92

28.37
6.14

Per cent.
32. 72
20.08
18.84
18.37
3.37

Per cent.
26. 81
.38. 14
11.65
14.32
2.34

Per cent.

.36. 41

39.19

7.50

7.26

3.95

Per cent.

50. 51

36. 86

3.11

.59

1.64

Per cent.

34. .53

42.37

3.95

9.47

2.27

Per cent.

29.11

26.57

20. 39

6. 13

5.39

Per cent.
32. 49
32. 91

European Russia

11.05

12.07

Bulgaria

3.58

91.00

93.38

93.26

93.95

92.71

92.59

87. 59

92.10)

THE INFLUENCE OF POOR CONDITION UPON CORN PRICES.

The economic features of the world's trade in corn, as represented
in the diagram and tables relating to the production, exports, and
international trade in that grain, undoubtedly account to a large extent

[Cir. 55]

36 AMEKICAN EXPOKT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

for the fluctuations and variations in European prices as indicated by
the prices quoted for corn on the London market. However this may
be, there can be no doubt that one of the important factors that has
influenced the fluctuations in- the prices of American corn and that
originated and has fostered the strong prejudice found existing
against that grain, both among importers and consumers in Europe,
was the poor and unsatisfactory condition in which many American
corn cargoes have been delivered in Europe during the past several
years.

A MARKET FOR BETTER QUALITIES OF GRAIN.

There seems to be every evidence that there is in Europe, and more
especially in Great Britain and Germany, a market for the better
classes and varieties of American grain in good condition at higher
prices. There can be no doubt that the wide range and great varia-
tions in the condition and quality of the recognized best export
grades of corn and wheat of the Atlantic and Gulf ports, of wiiich
under the present grain-trade practices there is practically but one
grade for each kind or class of grain and into which the greater bulk of
the grain exported from those ports has been included, have to a large
extent precluded the possibility of discrimination by the Buyer in
favor of the better classes and qualities of grain, because of the fact
that practically all of the grain exported is sold and purchased upon
certificates of grade, issued at the time of loading at the American
port and upon which final settlement is usually made before the cargo
reaches Europe. This method of doing business is undoubtedly very
desirable from the grain-trade standpoint, as it simplifies and facili-
tates the handling of a business of considerable proportions, but it is
also desirable that the grades of grain upon which trades are based
have a less wdde range in quality and condition for the reason that
the grading as at present practiced tends to reduce values to a basis
of the lowest common level for each kind or class of grain.

With the exception of a comparatively few of the best-posted im-
porters, the European trade, and especially the consuming trade, is
inclined to look at American grain from a common standpoint and to
condemn all American grain for iniquities that may be practiced in
the grading of grain at any one point. It is, therefore, also desirable
that the grades of grain for export, at least in their essential funda-
mental requirements, such as the limits of moisture, the soundness,
and the natural development of the grain, should be alike at all
points. Considered as a whole, the European trade desires this in
order to facilitate business, and there seems to be no sound economic
reason why it should not be so.

[Cir. 0.5]

AMEKICAN EXPORT CORN (mAIZE) IN EUROPE. 37

THE COLOR AND APPEARANCE OF CORN.

As a general statement it may be said that with respect to the size
of kernel the corn of most other countries nsiially found upon the
markets of Europe is about two-thirds the size of the American corn,
is generally round in shape, flinty in character, and does not differ
materially in appearance from the flint corn grown in some of the
New Kngland and i\iiddle States.

Hence the commercial designation of " Round maize." The term
"Flat maize" applies largely to American corn, although consider-
able quantities of corn known as "flat maize" are received from Rou-
mania and adjacent territory, but this corn does not differ materially,
in size and appearance at least, from the round maize. Some small
shipments of entirely white corn and of entirely yellow corn have of
late been received in Europe from South Africa which in size, shape,
and appearance tally almost exactly with some varieties of American
corn.

The color of the corn from all countries except the United States is
either almost entirely yehow or entirely white. Generally the corn
of the other countries found on the markets of Europe is yellow corn
of various shades and usually has a bright, fresh appearance, while
American corn is mostly mixed, white, yellow, and other colors, and
because of early shelling, while the corn contains high percentages of
moisture, and because of much rough handling through elevators, etc.,
usually presents a rather dull and comparatively inferior appearance.
When not purchased for specific purposes as white corn, there is a
marked preference in Europe for bright-yellow corn, and this prefer-
ence undoubtedly militates at times and to some extent against the
sale of American corn in some European grain markets. It there-
fore seems that it would benefit the American export corn trade if
more attention was paid to the color of the corn exported.

EUROPEAN COMPLAINTS CONSERVATIVE.

During these investigations it was found that the European com-
plaints of dehveries of American corn were conservative, at least in
numbers, as several cargoes were known to have been delivered in
Europe in a more or less damaged condition and upon which cargoes
no complaints were made because of the conditions of the contracts
under wliich the purchases were made and the apparent uselessness of
making complaints. The delivery abroad of corn and other grain
shipments in bad condition, as showTi, has surely had a detrimental
effect upon the export grain trade of the United States and has pro-
duced a condition which under the present trade methods precludes
fair treatment on its merits of American corn in pAiropc, a condition
that is not desirable at times when the United States has considerable

[Cir. 55]

38 AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

quantities of corn to sell. With a view toward overcomino; as far
as possible the undesirable effects of these conditions the following
recommendations are made.

RECOMMENDATIONS.

(1) That the moisture content of all grain exported be kept as low
as possible, in order that high temperatures, long voyages, and other
harmful conditions encountered may not cause it to become heated
and damaged in transit.

(2) That corn containing more than 13 J per cent of moisture and
wheat containing more than 12 per cent of moisture, at the time of
loading, be not stow^ed in ships against or near unprotected boiler and
engine room bulkheads, unprotected propeller-shaft tunnel coverings,
or in the coal-bunker holds of ships."

(3) That partially artificially dried corn which before drying con-
tained high percentages of moisture or which had been in a heating
condition before being partially dried be not shipped for export.''

(4) That corn that has been partially or wholly artificially dried
and that has been mixed with corn not dried that contains high
percentages of moisture be not shipped for export.''

(5) That all corn shipped for export be made as clean as possible
and that care be taken to distribute evenly through each hold broken
particles of corn, dirt, and foreign matter not removable from the
grain, which usually collect under the hatches of the ships during the
process of loading.

(6) That grain for export be not loaded into ships when it is raining
and that care be exercised not to admit water in any manner into the
holds where grain is stowed.

(7) That all shifting boards and all dunnage of every description
placed in holds where grain is stowed be dry.

a The investigations of the Office of Grain Standardization into the subject of air-
dry grain have not been completed, but sufficient is known from observations made
during three years' work to enable it to be said that thoroughly air-dried corn contains
about 12 per cent of moistine and that corn considered commercially dry contains
about 14 per cent of moisture.

Tests made with wheat considered commercially dry ranged from 9 per cent of
moisture in wheat from the Pacific coast to from 12 to 13 per cent of moisture in that
from the East and Middle West. Indications are that the air-dry basis of other grains
will be found slightly lower than that of corn.

b Observations of such corn in storage and in transit have indicated that it was
strongly inclined to heat very quickly, especially in ocean transit. Such corn should
be thoroughly dried and thoroughly cooled after drying.

c As in the case of the corn referred to in the above footnote, such corn also showed a
strong tendency to heat quickly in ocean transit. No attempt will be made to explain
these phenomena until these investigations have been completed.
[Cir. r.r.]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE. 39

(8) That heav}^ freight, and especially damp cotton or wet lumber,
be not stowod in the holds of the ships upon the top of grain for
export.

(9) That grain for export be not loaded into ships at any consider-
able time before they are ready to leave port.

(10) That all grain-carrying ships be provided with additional or
"false" bulkheads in such manner as to provide air spaces of from 12
to 18 inches next to and between the boiler and engine room })ulk-
heads and those of the cargo holds; that these false bulkheads and all
metal shaft tunnel coverings be reenforced with plank sheathing next
to the cargo and that the air spaces thus formed between the bulk-
heads, as well as the propeller-shaft tunnels, be connected with venti-
lators, as shown in figure 6.

(11) That when exporting wheat which contains considerable quan-
tities of wild garlic the advisablity of artificially drying and cleaning
the wheat in order to remove the garlic be considered.'*

(12) That the commercial grades of corn for export be recast and
the grading be done in such manner that the corn may be bought and
sold upon the basis of its dry -matter content, considered together
with its apparent quality, and that 12 per cent of moisture be con-
sidered as a commercial basis from which to figure corn values.

THE RELATIVE WORTH OF GRAIN ON A DRY-MATTER BASIS.

Table XVI is here inserted as a guide to a better understanding
of the relative values of commercial corn upon a dry-matter basis.
This table shows the comparative values of the dry-matter content
of grain containing from 12 to 25 per cent of moisture, inclusive, and
at prices ranging from 40 cents to SI per unit of measure, that is, per
bushel hundredweight, etc. The comparative values as shown in this
table, as well as the principle upon which they are based, will apply
equally well to all grains, although the air-dry basis of other grains
is likely to be found slightly lower in moisture than that of corn.

HOW TO USE THE DRY-MATTER BASIS.

Tlu'ough the use of this table the relative value of the dry-matter
content of grain containing various quantities of moisture may be
quickly ascertained. Thus, if grain containing 12 per cent of moisture
is worth 40 cents per bushel (or other unit of measure) then grain
containing 22 per cent of moisture is worth 35.45 cents, and grain
containing 25 per cent of moisture is worth 34.09 cents on the same
basis, because corn containing 12 per cent of moisture at 40 cents

o Bulletin 100, pt. 3, Bureau of Plant Industry, TJ. S. Dept. of Agriculture, gives
details and results of experiments in artificially drying wheat in order to remove
garlic.

[Clr. 55]

40

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

Table XVI. « — The relative ivorth of grain on a dry-matter basis, showing the price per
unit of measure from 40 cents t^) :*!fand the difference in value for each 1 per cent of
moisture from 12 to 25 per cent.

Moisture content and relative worth per unit of measure.

12

per

cent^

13

per

cent.

Cents.
40.00
41.00
42.00
43.00
44.00

45.00
46.00
47.00
48.00
49.00

50.00
51.00
52.00
53. 00
54.00

55.00
56. 00
57.00
58.00
59.00

60.00
61.00
62.00
63. 00
64.00

65.00
66.00
67. 00
68.00
69.00

70.00
71.00
72.00
73.00
74.00

75.00
76. 00
77.00
78. 00
79.00

80.00
81.00
82.00
83. 00
84.00

85.00
86.00
87.00
88.00
89.00

90.00
91.00
92.00
93.00
94.00

95.00
96.00
97.00
98.00
99.00
100. 00

Cts.
39.54
40. 53
41.53
42.51
43. 50

44.49
45.47

46. 47

47. 46
48.44

14

per

cent.

49.43
50.42
51.41
52.40
53.38

15

per

cent.

16

per

cent.

54.38
55.37
56. .35
57.34
58.33

59.32
60.31
61.29
62.28
63. 28

64. 20
65. 25
66.24
67.22
68.22

69. 21
70. 19
71.18
72.17
73. 16

74. 15
75.13
76.13
77.12
78.10

79.09
80.08
81.07
82. 06
S3. 04

39.09
40.07
41.05
42. 02
43. 00

43. 98
44.95
45.93
46. 91
47.88

48.87
49.84
50. 82
51.80
52. 77

53.75

54. 73

55. 70
56.68
57. 66

58. 63
59. 6!
60. 59
61.57
62.55

63.52
64.50
65.48

66. 45

67. 43

68. 41

69. 38
70.37
71.34
72.32

73.30

74.27
75.25
76. 23
77.20

78.18
79.16
80.13
81.12
82. 09

84.03
85.03
86.01
87.00
87.99

88. 97
89.97
90. 96
91.94
92. 93

93. 92
94.91
95.90
96.88
97. 88
98.87

Cts.
38. 63
39.00
40.57
41.53
42.50

43.4
44.43
45.40
46. 37
47.33

48.30

49. 26

50. 23
51.20
52. 16

53. 13
54.09
55.05
56.02
56.99

57.95
58.92
59.80
60. 85
61.82

62.78
63. 75
64.72
65.68
60.65

67. 62
68. 58
69.55
70.51
71.48

72.45
73.41
74.38
75.34
76.30

77.27
78.24
79.20
80.17
81.13

17

per

cent.

83.07
84.05
85.02
86. 00
86.98

87.95
88. 93
89.91
90.88
91. S7

92.84
93. 82
94.80
95.7
96. 75
97.73

82. 10
83. 07
84.03
85.00
85.97

Cts.
38.18

39. 14

40. 09
41.04
42.00

42. 96
43.91
44.86

45. 82
46.77

47.73

48. (i8

49. 64
50.59
51.54

52.50
53. 46
54.41
55.36
56.32

57.27
58. 23
59.18
60. 14
61.09

62.04
63.00
63. 9('
64.91

65. 8(

66. 82
67.77
68. 73
69. 68
70. 64

71.59
72.54
73. 50
74. 46
75.41

76. 36
77.32

78.27
79.23
80.18

U.U
82. 09
83.04
84.00
84 96

18

per

cent.

86.93
87.90
88.87
89.83
90.80

91.76
92.73
93. 70
94.66
95.63
96.59

85.91
86. 86
87. 82
88.77
89. 73

CT.«
37.72

38. (i7

39. 62

40. 55
41.. 50

42.45

43. 38

44. 33

45. 28
46.21

47.11

48. 10

49. 04
49.99

50. 93

51.88
52. 82
53. 76
54.71
55.65

56.59
57.54
58.47
59.42
60.37

61.. 30
62.25
63.20
64. 13
65.08

66. 03
66. 96
67.91

68. 85

69. 79

70.74
71.68

72. 63

73. 57
74.51

75. 46
76.40
77.34
78.29
79.22

80.17
81.12
82. 05
83. 00
83.95

84.88
85.83
86.78
87.71
. 88. 66

Cts.
37 2
38.20
39.14
40.0'
41.00

19

per

cent.

90. 68
91.64
92.59
93. 54
94.50
95. 4(

41.93
42.86
43. 80
44.73
45.66

46. 59
47.52
48.45
49. ,39
50. 32

51.25
52. 18
53.11
54. 05
54.98

55.91
56. 84
57.77
58.70
59.64

60.57
61.50

62. 43

63. 36

64. 30

65. 23

66. It;

67. 09

68. 02
68.95

69.89
70. 82
71.75
72. 68
73.61

74.55
75.48
76.41
77.34
78.27

79.20
80.14
81.07
82.00
82. 93

83.86
84.80
85.73
86. 66
87.59

Cts.
36. 81
37.74
38. 66
39.58
40.50

41.42
42.34
43. 26
44.19
45.10

20

per

cent.

Cts

36. 36

37. -2

38. IS
39.09
40.00

40.91
41.82

42. 73

43. 64
44.54

46.02 45.46

89. 60
90. 54
91.49
92.43
93. 38
94.32

88.52
89.45
90.39
91.32
92.25
93.18

46. 94

47.81
48.79

49. 70

50. 63
61.. 55
52. 4(
53.39
54.31

55. 23

56. 15
57.06
57.99
58.91

59. 83
60. 75
61.67
62. 59
63.51

64. 44

65. 35

66. 27
67.19
68.11

69. 04
69. 95
70.88
71.80
72.71

73. 64
74.56
75.48
76.40
77.31

78.24
79.10
80.08
81.00
81.92

82.84
83. 76
84.69
85. 60
86.52

87.44
88. 3t
89.29
90.20
91.13
92.05

21

per

cent.

per
cent.

46.36
47.27
48. 18
49. 09

50. 00
50. 91
51.82
52. 73
53.64

54.54

55. 4(

56. 3(
57.2;
58.18

59. 09
60. OC
60. 91
61.8;
62.73

63. 64
64.54
65. 4(

Cts.
35. 91
36.81
37.71
38. 60
39.50

40.40
41.29
42.19
43. 09
43. 99

44.89
45.78
46. 68
47.58
48.47

49.38
50.28
51.17
52.07
52.97

53.86

54. 70

55. 66

56. 56
57.46

58.35
59.25
60. 15
01.04

61. 94

62. 84

63. 74

64. 64

23

per

cent.

66. .36 65.53
67.27 66.43

68. 18
69. 09
70.00
70.91

71.82

72.73
73.64
74.54
75.46
76.36

77.27
78.18
79.09
80. 00
80. 91

81.82
82. 73
83.64
84.54

85. 46

86. 36
87.27
88.18
89.09
90. 00
90. 91

67.33
68. 22
69. 13
70.03
70.92

71.82
72.72
73.61
74.51
75.41

76. 31
77.21
78.10
79.00
79.90

80.79
81.69
82.59
83.49
84.39

85.28
86.18
87.08
87.97
88.88
89.78

Cts.
.35. 45

36. 34

37. 23
38.11
39.00

39. 89
40.77
41. 6(
42. 55
43.43

44. .32

45. 20
46. 09

46. 98

47. 86

48.75

49. 64

50. 52
51.41
52.30

53. 18
54.0'
54. 95
55.84
56.73

57.61
58.50
59.39

60. 27

61. 16

62. 05

62. 93

63. 82
64.70
65.59

66. 48

67. 36

68. 25
69.14
70.02

70.91
71.80
72.08
73.57
74.45

24

per

cent.

25

per

cent.

75.34
76.
77.11
78. 00
78.89

79.77
80. 66
81.55
82.43
83. 32

Cts

35. 00
35.87

36. 75
.37. 62

38. 50

39. 38
40.25

41. 13
42.00

42. 87

43. 75

44. 62

45. 50

46. 38
47.25

48. 13

49. 00
49.87

50. 75
51.63

52.50
53.38
54. 25
55.12
56. 00

56.87
57.75

58. 63

59. 50
00. 38

61.25
62.12
63. 00
63. 87
64.75

65. 63

66. .50

67. 38
(«. 25

69. 12

70.00

70. 88
71.75
72.63
73.50

74. 3
75.25

76. 12

77. 00
77.88

78.75
79. 63
80. 50
81.3
82. 25

84.20
85.09
85.98

86. 86

87. 75
88.64

Cts.
34.54
35.41
36. 27
37.13
38.00

38.87

39. 73

40. 59
41.46
42.3

43. 18
44.04
44.91
45.77
46. 63

47.50
48.37

49. 23

50. 09
50. 96

51.82
52.68
53. 54
54.41
55. 27

56. 13
57.00
57.87
58. 73
59.59

60. 46
61.32

62. 18

63. 04

63. 91

64. 77

65. 63
6(1. 50

67. 37

68. 23

69. 09

69. 96

70. 82
71.68
72.54

73.41

74. 27
75.13
76. 00
76.87

77.73
78.59
79.46

Cts

34.09

34.94

35.80

36. 65

37.50

38. 3f
39.20
40. Of
40.91
41.76

42. 62

43. 4(
44. 32
45.17
46.02

40. 88

47. 73

48. 58
49.43
50.29

Worth

of each

1 per

cent dry

mailer.

Cents.
0.4545 +
.4659+
. 4773-
. 4886+
.5000

.5114-
.5227+
..5.341-
.54.55-
. 5568+

. 5682-
.5795 +
.5909+
. 6023-
. 61,36+

. 6250
.6364-
. (i477+
.6591-
. 6705-

51.14
51.99

52. 84

53. 69
54.55

55.40
56.25
57.11
57.95

58.81

59. 66
60.51
61.37
62.21
63.07

63.92
64,

65. 63

66. 48

67. 33

68. 18
69. 04
69.89
70.74
71.59

72.44
73.30
74.15
75.00
75.81

76. 70
77.56
78. 41

83.12
84. 00
84.88
85.75
86. ti3
87.. 50

. 0818+
. 6932-
.7045 +
.7159+
.7273-

. 7386+
.7500
. 7614-
.7727+
.7841-

.7955-

. 8068+
. 8182-
. 8295+
. 8409+

. 8523-
. 86.36+
.8750
.8864-
. 8977+

.9091-
.9205-
. 9318+
. 94,32-
.9545 +

. 9659+

. 9773-

. 9880+

1.0000

1.0114-

1.0227+
1.0341-
1.0455-
1. 0568+

80. ,32 79.26

81.18; 80.12 1.0682-

82.04 80.961.0795 +
82.91 81.82:1.0909+
83.77 82.67,1.1023-
1.11,36+
1.1250
86. 37 85. 23 1. 1364-

84. 63' 83. 52

85. .50 84. .38

[Cir. 55]

AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE. 41

per bushel contains 88 per cent of dry matter, and each 1 per cent of
dry matter is therefore worth /^ <jf "^^^ cents, which equals .4545+ of
■•1 cent; corn containing 22 i)er cent of moisture wliich contains but
78 i)er cent of dry matter would, on the same basis, be worth 78 X
.4545+ of 1 cent, or 35.45 cents, per bushel, and corn containing 25
per cent of moisture and 75 per cent of dry matter would be worth
75 X. 4545+ of 1 cent, or 34.09 cents, i)er bushel on a dry-matter
basis. The worth of each 1 per cent of dry matter for eacli price
per unit of measure given is shown in the column at the right of the
tal)le.

Tiie table may be used either way to ascertain these relative values.
As, for instance, if a maximum of 16 per cent of moisture is allowed
in "No. 2 Corn" and that grade of corn is worth 70.64 cents per
bushel, then corn of the same grade containing only 12 ])er cent of
moisture would be worth 74 cents per bushel, while corn containing
22 per cent of moisture would be worth but 65.59 cents per bushel on
a dry-matter basis.

THE RATIO OF THE MOISTURE CONTENT TO THE DETERIORATION OF

GRAIN.

It will be noted in the table that no account is taken of the accel-
erated risk from deterioration in grain as its moisture content is
increased, nor the consequent reduction in value of the grain for stor-
age and transportation purposes." It will also be noted that the
difference in value per each 1 per cent of dry matter increases in
direct proportion to the increase in the price, so that as the prices
of grain increase the differences in value per each 1 per cent of dry
matter or of moisture become of more material importance to the
producer and consumer of grain. These greater differences in actual
value in tlie higher priced grain are sufficient to reimburse the pro-
ducer or seller for the cost of reducing the moisture content of the
grain and to enable the consumer to purchase it at the increased
cost, provided the grain is bought and sold on a basis of its dry-
matter content.

SUGGESTIONS RELATIVE TO GRADING CORN.

Tlie results of these investigations so far as they have i)rogressed,
indicate that commercial corn, in order to fix its intrinsic worth as
nearly as possible by grades, should be divided into at least two
classes: (1) To include only well-matured and well-develoj)ed corn
containing not more than 2h per cent of field or mold damaged

a It is confidently hoped that the investigations now being carried on by the
Office of Grain Standardization will throw some light u])(>n the ratio of increased risk
to increased moisture in commercial grains for storage and transportation purposes.
[Cir. 55]

42 AMERICAN EXPORT CORN ( MAIZE ) IN EUROPE.

kernels, and (2) to include the ordinary sorts of commercial corn
containing not more than 5 to 6 per cent of field-damaged kernels
(commercial basis, heat-damaged or "mahogany" kernels excluded),"
regardless of the moisture content of the corn, that each of the
suggested classes be subdivided into grades based upon the mois-
ture content of the corn, that no one grade should contain a greater
range than 2 per cent of moisture,'' and that no corn should be
graded, shipped long distances, put into storage, or exported on
grades unless it be commercially clean and free from indications of
fermentation.

The necessity for some arrangement of this kind in the grading of
corn and for more care in the methods of handling corn becomes more
apparent as the prices and values of grain continue to increase, and
as they continue to increase the advisability of still narrower limits
of moisture within the grades will become more apparent.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, February 8, 1910.

a The analyses of samples taken from various cargoes of corn, representing approxi-
mately 4^ million bushels of all grades exported from the United States during No-
vember and December, 1908, and February, March, April, and October, 1909, showed
a maximum of 10.2 per cent (December, 1908), a minimum of 2 per cent, and an aver-
age of about 2.5 per cent of field and mold damaged kernels. The maximum of 10.2
per cent was unusual and undesirable. It is the opinion of the writers that corn
containing more than 5 to 6 per cen't of such damaged kernels and also corn containing
heat-damaged or "mahogany" kernels, should be bought and sold "on samples" or
on special grades.

b Bulletin 99, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, describes the
Brown and Duvel apparatus for and method of making moistm-e determinations in
grain quickly. The apparatus has been recommended by the Department of Agri-
culture and is extensively used in the grain trade for the purpose.
[Cir. 55]

o

Issued April 22, 1910.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— Circular No. 56.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING
THE YIELD OF HOPS.

LIBRARY

^e^v york'
W. W. STOCKBERGER, Pharmacognosist, Q'^«De«.

AND

JA:^IES THOMPSON, Expert,
Drug-Plant Investigations.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1910

332G3— Cir. ".G— 10

BLEEAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Beveuly T. Galloway.
Assistant Chief of Buycaii, G. Hakold Powell.
Editor, J. E. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

[Cir. 56]

9

p.. r. I.— 501:

SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING THE
YIELD OP HOPS."

INTRODUCTION.

In certain of the hop-ijrowino- sections of the United States the
opinion is frequently expressed that there has been a progressive de-
cline in the annual average yield per acre extending over a term of
years. In other sections growers believe that the yields are at least
as great now as they have ever been. Some support for each view is
found in Table I, adapted from Bulletin No. 50 of the Bureau of
Statistics, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Table I. — Average yield of hops, hi/ states, for the ccn.sns years 1880, JS90,

and J 000.

State.

California

New York.. .

Oregon

Washington .

Average yield per acrs.

1880.

1890.

Pounds.

Pounds.

1,291

1,648

554

547

804

1,155

1,317

1,626

1900.

Pounds.

1,469
630
951

1,287

"This paper clearly illustrates the importauce of applying exact methods in
studying the factors inlluenciiig crop yields. The facts here set forth were
obtained from a study of the yield of hops, and they offer suggestions of great
practical importance to every hop grower. It is desirable to emphasize the
point that the most profitable methods of culture and handling can not be accu-
rately determined by general observation alone, since many derails will be over-
looked which, apparently trilling in themselves, become of great importance
wlien taken in the aggregate. For cxjuniile, the direct loss due to the lack of
a stand alone may not be appreciated until a survey is made and the percentage
ratio determinetl.

The practical points presented in this publication were developed in connec-
tion with an extended investigation of American hop growing and liandling
which is being carried on by Dr. W. W. Stockberger, Pharmacoguosist, assisted
by Mr. .T.imes Thompson, expert, under the general direction of Dr. It. H. True
Physiologist in Charge of Drug-Plant Investigations, and it seems desirable to
make these results inmiediately available in the form of a circular. — G. H.
I'owELr, .feting Chief of Bureau.
[Cir. 56]

4 SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING THE YIELD OF HOPS.

The figures given in this table were taken at ten-year intervals, and
in the absence of those for the intervening years they are of little
value in determining either an increase or a decrease iu the average
annual yield. Assuming, however, that the apparent diminution of
yield for the State of California as indicated by the table was real, a
thorough stud}' of an individual acre in the central part of the State
was begun in 1909 for the purpose of determining some of the factors
which might be responsible for diminished production.

The results of this study clearly indicate that closer attention to
certain cultural details should result in a substantial increase in yield.

THE METHODS EMPLOYED IN THE INVESTIGATION.

The acre selected for study represented, as far as inspection
alone could determine, the average of conditions existing in several
contiguous fields of hops aggregating about GOO acres. The soil, a
rich sandy loam, had been under hops continuously for the last ten
years. The rows were 7 feet apart, running from east to west, and
the hills were approximately 6| feet apart in the rows. The hops
were trained on strings about 18 feet long, depending from the wires
of the usual type of high-wire trellis."

When the crop was ready for liarAesting, a plat was made of the
entire acre and a definite number assigned to every hill. The hops
were then picked from each hill separately, weighed, and the weight
recorded opposite the number assigned to that respective hill. The
number of vines to the hill, the occurrence of male, dwarf, " bastard,"
nonproductive, and missing hills, and the general characteristics of
the product of each hill were also recorded.

EFFECT OF IMPERFECT STAND ON YIELD OF HOPS.

When the observations were tabulated it became evident that the
yield had been heavily reduced through the occurrence of a large
number of nonproductive and missing hills, as will be seen from the
following:

Hills producing; hops 853

Hills having vines with no hops 42

Missing hills ; 5^^

Hills with dwarfed vines 1

Hills having "bastard" vines 5

Hills having only male vines T>

Total '>6T

Deditcting the number of male hiils. the presence of which is held to
be necessary for the proper development of the crop, there should
have been on this acre 957 productive hills, as against 853 hills

" See Farmers' Bulletin 304, p. 14.
[Cir. 50]

SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING THE YIELD OF HOPS. 5

actually bearing hops. This gives an absohite reduction of 104 hills,
or 10.8 per cent. Had the entire number of hills been in bearing the
yield would have been 12.1 per cent greater lliaii that actually ob-
tained.

The distribution of the hills having vines with no hops and of the
missing hills is shown on the accompanying diagram (fig. 1). The

,, tt_ it — <l if-#

■ ] — — — — — — — — 'f — — T~ T T ^ T

»> — O— -iir-

,. -3{— ^f-5t-

__Jf -it— — ?6-?t-

no (f

ii —

5H»

_st— if <'

1, — 1 1

,, >f ^f-Af —

< ►— r I ' V / V

-J%t— -At-Af 3C

o jk i \

-o-i?i- ^^ -r

— o- -)^ -

St

.. _ye_ ^(At- Jf

3{ JE — JSrJC- —ii

o o —

,i^ -i(— — <>—

- — Sf—

^^

-^{ — — 3E—

_»,£ _»«

— 5^ j\,

—ii— —4i— — o— — a

1 1 — ' ' ' ' / ♦

1 — 41 — — Jt- J<

J5 Ih-JJ

«#_5# ^t

_^J-={— J^

iC X "-5? <'

'''''' ' ' ' — ' ' ' ' L<|_

1^ 1 1 1 1 1 1.

Fig. 1. — Diagram showing tlie distriliution of nonproductivo and missing liills of hops on
the experimental acre in California. #= Vines bearing no hops; X = missing hills.

dots indicate the hills having vines bearing no hops, and the crosses
the missing hills. This distribution appears to be entirely one of
chance and not due to variation in the soil, imperfections in the
drainage, or other purely local factors.

LCir. 56]

6

SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING THE YIELD OF HOPS.

VARIATION IN THE YIELD FROM INDIVIDUAL HILLS.

A wide variation was observed in the yield from individual hills.
This ranged from a few ounces in some cases to as much as 18
pounds in others. In making the records the weiglit of green hops
was taken to the nearest half pound, and the results have been put in
tabular form, appearing in Table 11. In the columns marked
" Yield " the weight of green hops is given to the nearest half pound,
and in the other two columns is given the number of hills^ each of
which gave the yield opposite these numbers in the adjacent column
to the left.

Table II. — Number of liills (jiring rariont^ yields of Jiops on, tlic experimental

acre in Cali